Neuroscience

October 16 2023

The Dark Side of the Brain: The Neuroscience of Violence and War

George Nestoros All blog posts Neuroscience, neuroscience of violence, war

This article has been written to investigate the neuroscience of violence. But let me explain first how I came to this topic.

As I sit down to pen this article, the haunting echoes of conflict reverberate from the heart of the Middle East. Israel and Gaza are once again engulfed in a war that has taken countless innocent lives and left scars that might never truly heal. The images of devastation, the heart-wrenching stories of families torn apart, and the relentless cycle of violence have left an indelible mark on my psyche.

It’s in these moments of profound reflection that I find myself grappling with a question that has, perhaps, haunted humanity since the dawn of time:

What is it within us that can drive us to such extremes of violence, to the point of taking another’s life?
What transforms ordinary individuals into agents of destruction?
Can we define this kind of behavior?
After all, what is the neuroscience of violence?

With a heavy heart and a quest for understanding, I attempted to examine the intricate tapestry of neuroscience, psychology, and sociology to understand human aggression and violence.

The truth is that I only scratched the surface.

The Brain’s Role in Aggression

The human brain, a marvel of evolution, is capable of love, empathy, and creativity. Yet, it also harbors the potential for violence, aggression, and even heinous war crimes.

And when it comes to the brain’s role in aggression, two are the key brain parts: the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

The amygdala plays a pivotal role in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression. When stimulated, it can evoke violent reactions. Conversely, the prefrontal cortex, responsible for impulse control and moral reasoning, can inhibit aggressive behaviors.

Amygdala and Aggression

The amygdala is especially active when we experience fear or perceive threats. It helps us recognize potential dangers and prepares our body to respond, either by confronting the threat (fight) or fleeing from it (flight).

Hence, direct stimulation of the amygdala can result in aggressive behaviors. This is because the amygdala can evoke strong emotional reactions without the moderating influence of other brain regions.

And because the amygdala plays a role in associating certain stimuli with emotional responses based on past experiences, it might trigger an aggressive response when encountering a known stimulus!

The Prefrontal Cortex and Impulse Control

On the other side, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is responsible for weighing the consequences of actions, making decisions, and inhibiting inappropriate or socially unacceptable behaviors.

While the amygdala might trigger an aggressive response, the PFC can act as a brake, evaluating whether this response is appropriate. If the PFC determines that aggression is not the best course of action, it can inhibit the amygdala’s response, preventing aggressive behavior.

Neurotransmitters of Violence

Serotonin, the “feel-good” neurotransmitter, and Dopamine, the neurotransmitter of reward, strangely play a significant role in the neuroscience of violence.

But how?

Serotonin and Violence

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that plays a multifaceted role in the brain, influencing mood, appetite, sleep, and more.

We all know that low levels of serotonin in the brain have been linked to various mood disorders, including depression. But what we might not know is that, additionally, serotonin deficiency is associated with increased impulsivity!

While the exact mechanisms are still being researched, low serotonin levels are believed to reduce the brain’s ability to regulate anger and aggressive responses.

Even some studies in humans have found that individuals with a history of violent behavior have lower levels of serotonin.

Dopamine and Aggression

Dopamine plays a central role in the brain’s reward system. When we engage in activities that are pleasurable or beneficial for survival, dopamine is released, giving us a feeling of satisfaction. Then the craving for this “high” will make us repeat the relevant behavior.

But what happens when aggression becomes a rewarding behavior?

Acts of dominance or achieving a goal through aggression can lead to a dopamine release. This creates a reinforcing loop: the aggressive act leads to a dopamine “high,” which in turn makes the individual more likely to engage in such behavior again.

If an individual repeatedly experiences a dopamine release after violent acts, these behaviors can become reinforced. Over time, the brain starts associating aggression with reward, making it more challenging to inhibit such behaviors.

Is there a genetic predisposition to violence?

There is evidence to suggest that genetic factors can influence an individual’s predisposition to violent or aggressive behavior.

First of all, several genes have been studied in relation to aggressive behavior. The most known of them is the MAOA Gene, the “warrior gene”.

What is the MAOA Gene?

Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) is an enzyme responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in the brain. The gene that codes for this enzyme is the MAOA gene, located on the X chromosome.

The MAOA gene has different variants, and studies have shown that individuals with the MAOA-L variant are more prone to aggressive behavior, especially when exposed to adverse environmental factors. This variant results in reduced MAOA enzyme activity, leading to altered neurotransmitter levels in the brain.

Twin and Adoption Studies

Twin and adoption studies provide valuable insights into the nature vs. nurture debate.

These studies have shown:

Higher Concordance Rates: Identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) often have higher concordance rates for aggressive behavior compared to fraternal twins (who share about 50% of their genes). This suggests a genetic component to aggression.
Adoption Studies: Children who are biologically related to a violent parent but are raised by non-violent adoptive parents still have an increased risk of violent behavior, further pointing to a genetic influence.

However, it’s crucial to understand that genetics is just one piece of a complex puzzle. Behavior, including violent behavior, is the result of a multifaceted interplay between genetics, environment, upbringing, personal experiences, and other factors.

The Role of Childhood Trauma

The relationship between the MAOA gene and aggression becomes particularly pronounced when considering environmental factors. Childhood trauma can lead to epigenetic changes that influence behavior, including aggression.

genetic predisposition to violence — *Epigenetics* *refers to changes in gene activity that don’t involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence.*

Research has indicated that individuals with the MAOA-L variant who have experienced childhood trauma or maltreatment are more likely to exhibit violent or antisocial behavior in adulthood.

The Environment’s Role in Shaping Behavior

Growing up in war-torn regions, experiencing abuse, or being exposed to violent ideologies can shape the brain’s neural pathways, making aggressive responses more likely.

If you are someone who has been exposed to psychotherapy, you probably realize that a significant part of your personality and the way you perceive the world is because of some childhood experiences.

You might passed an extended period of acne, you have been bullied in school, or maybe you felt that the new baby in the family is taking all the attention. I can write forever!

The point is that all these experiences sculptured you and your world perspective.

Now imagine this: You were born in a place of poverty. You and your family fought to survive. You had experiences of terror, bombed cities, and killed people. Not only you have seen hell, but you lived in it! And on top of all of these, you learned from an early age, and have often been reminded, that there is an enemy. An enemy that is so evil to do all these cruel things to you and your people. This enemy is the devil! And usually, it is not one person but a whole race of humans.

Now, after reading this. Still wondering why these people can now go to extremes without a second thought?

The brain, in its adaptability, responds to its environment, and repeated exposure to violence can reinforce neural pathways associated with aggression.

The Habit Loop and Violence

Moreover, drawing from the neuroscience behind habit formation, violent behaviors, once initiated and rewarded, can become habitual. The brain begins to associate certain cues (like threats to power or territory) with violent responses, especially if these responses have previously resulted in desired outcomes

Dehumanization and War Crimes

One of the most critical aspects of war crimes, and not only, is the dehumanization of the “enemy.” Dehumanization has been used many MANY times historically either as a propaganda lever, to make acts of violence against specific groups more acceptable, or in war situations where soldiers can distance themselves from the moral implications of their actions.

What is Dehumanization?

Dehumanization refers to the psychological process of viewing others as less than human. This can manifest in various ways, such as seeing others as animals, objects, or even as evil entities.

The Neuroscience of Dehumanization

Empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of another, is associated with specific brain regions, including the anterior insula and the anterior cingulate cortex. When we empathize with someone, these areas become more active.

Neuroscientific studies have shown that when individuals view others as “less than human,” there’s reduced activity in the brain regions associated with empathy. This means that the natural human response to the suffering of others is diminished.

Dehumanizing others not only reduces empathy but also activates brain regions associated with feelings of disgust, primarily the insula. Disgust is a powerful emotion that can distance us from its source, making negative actions towards the “disgusting” entity more justifiable. Don’t believe me? A butterfly and cockroach are the same harmless, yet how many butterflies have you ever killed?

Consequently, when empathy is reduced, and disgust is heightened, acts of violence against the dehumanized group become more palatable. The natural inhibitions or moral reservations against harming others are weakened, making these heinous acts become more justifiable in the minds of the perpetrators.

The Group Mentality

The brain is wired for social connection and belonging. In war scenarios, group ideologies can override individual moral reasoning.

The desire for group acceptance, combined with a dehumanized view of the enemy, can lead to conformity with violent group norms.

The Biochemistry of War

Last but not least we should consider the brain’s response to high-stress situations. When faced with immediate threats, the adrenal glands release adrenaline. This hormone prepares the body to either confront the threat (“fight”) or flee from it (“flight”).

Adrenaline causes several physiological changes:

Increased Heart Rate: To pump more blood and provide oxygen to muscles.
Dilated Pupils: To take in more light and improve vision.
Redirected Blood Flow: Blood is directed away from less crucial functions (like digestion) to muscles, preparing the body for action.
Heightened Awareness: The senses become more acute, and reaction times decrease.

Through these physiological changes, adrenaline increases reactivity and can lead to heightened aggression. The immediate need for survival can override the brain’s usual inhibitory checks. This means that actions can be taken more impulsively, without the usual moral or ethical considerations.

Neuroscience of Violence – Takeaway

The brain, in all its complexity, holds the keys to our most compassionate acts and our most heinous crimes. The neuroscience of violence offers insights, but it also presents challenges. As we stand at the crossroads of biology and morality, it’s imperative to remember that understanding is the first step to change. Walk straight through the dark recesses of the brain, and then we can hope to shine a light on the path to peace.

Hope that this war will end shortly, and no other innocent people will suffer.

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References

May 28 2023

Happy Chemical: Serotonin, Dopamine, Oxytocin and Endorphins

George Nestoros All blog posts, Mental Health, Neuroscience Basics dopamine, endorphins, Happy chemical, Neuroscience, oxytocin, serotonin

Happy Chemical in Brain

Happy Chemical is not only our website name, which is very cool, but it’s also referring to a chemical compound that causes a feeling of happiness in a person.

Have you ever thought about what happens in the human brain when feeling happy? What neurotransmitters are secreted when someone is excited? We don’t usually examine our feelings that way but, think about it. How do you feel right now? Are you sad? Are you happy? Do you feel grateful and content? Or maybe you are stressed? Whatever you answered, behind this answer, a chemical profile causes your feelings.

For instance, right now, the exact moment, while I am writing this article, I feel focused, motivated, and a little anxious. This possibly means that my chemical profile consists of higher levels of dopamine (motivation), acetylcholine (focus), and epinephrine (anxiety). Okay, I know, this is oversimplified, yet it’s true!

4 Happy Chemicals

The human body and especially the human brain is very complex. Even though scientists have been trying to deconstruct its function for years, too many things remain in the dark waiting to be found. However, we know the four main compounds when it comes to brain chemicals for happiness.

Dopamine, Serotonin, Oxytocin, and Endorphins.

These are the well-known neurotransmitters/hormones that could be considered the “happy chemicals” due to their effect on our mood. Let’s examine them.

Dopamine Function

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in our brain’s reward and pleasure system, as well as in several other important functions such as motivation, mood regulation, attention, movement, decision-making, and cognitive processes. Produced by dopaminergic neurons in different regions of the brain, including the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, and hypothalamus, dopamine acts as a reward signal.

When we experience something pleasurable, such as a delicious meal, dopamine is released, creating a sense of pleasure and motivating us to seek similar experiences. This reinforcement mechanism drives behaviors crucial for our survival, such as eating, drinking, and socializing.

A Happy Chemical With a Mulitfaced Role

Dopamine also plays a significant role in regulating our moods and emotions. Low levels of this happy chemical have been associated with depression, while excessive dopamine activity has been linked to mania and psychosis, highlighting the importance of maintaining a balanced dopamine system for emotional well-being.

Beyond reward and mood regulation, dopamine influences attention and movement. It helps us focus on important information and ignore distractions, while also being crucial for initiating and coordinating movement. In Parkinson’s disease, the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra leads to severe dopamine depletion, resulting in the characteristic movement difficulties associated with the condition.

The profound effects of changes in dopamine levels demonstrate the impact of dopamine on behavior. Drugs that increase dopamine, such as cocaine and amphetamines, can induce intense pleasure and euphoria, leading to addiction and harmful behaviors. Conversely, drugs that decrease dopamine levels, such as antipsychotics, can cause side effects such as apathy, anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), and movement disorders.

Recent research has revealed additional roles of dopamine in decision-making, social behaviors, and cognitive processes. Dopamine has been implicated in social bonding and attachment, contributing to forming and maintaining social relationships.

It also plays a critical role in assessing the expected value of different options and influencing our choices accordingly. (What?)

Dopamine and Anticipation

You basically see something (activity, material stuff, or even a state of being) and your brain makes an estimation of the pleasure/satisfaction you might have if you get it. Then based on this estimation, the brain triggers the seeking and the anticipation of this something (activity, material stuff, or even state of being).

And if the acquisition of this won’t give the pleasure that your brain has estimated, then your dopamine levels will be crushed.

So if your brain thinks that having the brand new car that just passed by will make you happy, then probably you will be disappointed some days after you buy it!

Understanding dopamine’s impact on behavior is crucial for the treatment of neurological and psychological disorders. Medications targeting the dopamine system are commonly used for conditions like Parkinson’s disease, depression, and ADHD. However, the complex interplay between dopamine and other neurotransmitters means that these drugs can have significant side effects and may not be effective for everyone.

Advancements in neuroscience have expanded our knowledge of dopamine’s role in the brain. Studies have revealed its involvement in learning, decision-making, habit formation, and higher cognitive functions such as working memory and creativity. Dopamine modulates neural circuits underlying these processes, and alterations in dopamine levels can influence their outcomes.

Serotonin Function

The Most Known Happy Hormone

Serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, behavior, and various physiological processes. Produced in the brainstem by a group of neurons called raphe nuclei, serotonin acts as a chemical messenger, transmitting signals between nerve cells throughout the brain and central nervous system. It is not just a happy chemical since its function is diverse and essential for our overall well-being.

At the forefront of serotonin’s functions is its influence on mood regulation. Often referred to as the “feel-good” neurotransmitter, serotonin helps create feelings of happiness, contentment, and emotional balance. Low levels of serotonin have been associated with depression and anxiety disorders, while higher levels are linked to increased happiness and a sense of wellness.

Serotonin also plays a role in regulating sleep patterns and appetite. It helps to regulate the sleep-wake cycle, promoting healthy sleep and contributing to a restful night’s rest. Additionally, serotonin influences appetite and plays a part in the feeling of satiety and the regulation of food intake. Beyond these effects on mood, sleep, and appetite, serotonin is involved in pain perception and the regulation of cardiovascular function.

The serotonin guide

Various factors can influence serotonin levels in the brain. First of all, genetics. They play a role in determining the functioning of serotonin receptors and the efficiency of serotonin production and reuptake. Moreover, environmental factors, such as stress, can also impact serotonin levels. Chronic stress can deplete serotonin stores and disrupt its normal functioning.

Fortunately, there are natural ways to boost serotonin levels. Regular exercise increases serotonin production in the brain, leading to improved mood. Likewise, exposure to natural sunlight also stimulates the production of serotonin. Moreover, engaging in activities that bring joy, pursuing hobbies, spending time with loved ones, and practicing relaxation techniques like meditation and deep breathing can all contribute to serotonin levels.

lady exercising — **Exercise is one of the best tools for fighting depression!**

While lifestyle factors can influence serotonin levels, it’s important to note that serotonin balance is a complex process, and individual responses may vary. In some cases, medication may be necessary to address serotonin imbalances associated with clinical conditions like depression. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly prescribed to increase serotonin levels and alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety disorders. It’s always recommended to consult with a healthcare professional for personalized advice and guidance.

Understanding the multifaceted function of serotonin and the factors that influence its levels empowers us to take proactive steps towards enhancing our mood, promoting emotional well-being, and leading happier, more balanced lives. By adopting lifestyle choices that support optimal serotonin functioning, such as engaging in regular physical activity, spending time in nature, nurturing relationships, and practicing self-care, we can positively influence our serotonin levels and overall mental health.

Difference Between Serotonin and Dopamine

Because of our days’ oversimplification, we need to emphasize the difference between the most known happy chemicals. Dopamine and serotonin are two key neurotransmitters that play significant roles in the brain and have distinct functions. While both contribute to our experience of happiness, they have different mechanisms and effects on mental health.

Dopamine is primarily involved in the brain’s reward and motivation system. It plays a crucial role in reinforcing behaviors that are essential for our survival, such as eating, drinking, and socializing. Dopamine is released when we engage in pleasurable activities, creating a sense of enjoyment and motivating us to seek out similar experiences. It also influences our attention, focus, and movement coordination.

On the other hand, serotonin is involved in regulating mood, emotions, and overall well-being. It contributes to feelings of happiness, contentment, and emotional balance. Serotonin helps modulate our sleep-wake cycle, appetite, and pain perception. It plays a significant role in maintaining stable mood states and promoting a sense of calm and relaxation.

While both happy chemicals contribute to happiness, they differ in their specific roles and effects. Dopamine is associated with the anticipation and pursuit of rewards, while serotonin is more closely linked to our overall emotional state and mood stability. Dopamine creates a sense of pleasure and motivation to seek rewards, while serotonin promotes a sense of contentment, emotional well-being, and satisfaction with life.

Oxytocin Function

Oxytocin, the “love hormone”, is a powerful neurotransmitter and hormone that plays a vital role in social bonding, trust, and positive emotions. Its function extends beyond the brain, as it also acts as a hormone released by the pituitary gland into the bloodstream.

In the brain, this happy chemical is primarily associated with social behaviors and interpersonal connections. It is released during various social interactions, fostering feelings of closeness, empathy, and trust. Oxytocin helps to strengthen social bonds, whether between romantic partners, friends, family members, or even between mothers and infants.

One of the key roles of oxytocin is its involvement in facilitating social bonding and attachment. It promotes feelings of connectedness and intimacy between individuals. Oxytocin is particularly important in romantic relationships, as it enhances feelings of love, affection, and trust between partners. It also plays a crucial role in maternal-infant bonding, facilitating the strong emotional connection between mothers and their newborns.

Oxytocin is also associated with prosocial behaviors and positive emotions. It increases generosity, empathy, and cooperation among individuals. Oxytocin even promotes a sense of altruism and the willingness to help others. Oxytocin can enhance feelings of happiness, contentment, and overall well-being, contributing to positive social interactions and a sense of belonging.

Various activities and situations can increase the release of oxytocin in the brain. Physical touch, such as hugging, cuddling, or holding hands, is a potent stimulator of oxytocin release. Positive social interactions, such as spending quality time with loved ones, engaging in meaningful conversations, and showing acts of kindness, can also elevate oxytocin levels. Sharing meals, participating in group activities, and engaging in bonding rituals or ceremonies are examples of situations that can increase oxytocin release.

Oxytocin: 5 Facts You Didn’t Know About The “Love Hormone”

You can find more fascinating facts about the love hormone in our post.

Endorphins Function

Endorphins, which are neurotransmitters produced in the human brain, have a profound impact on various aspects of our wellness. Derived from the words “endogenous” and “morphine,” these natural chemicals serve as the body’s own painkillers and are involved in promoting pleasurable sensations. Produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus, endorphins are released into the bloodstream. Then they bind to receptors throughout the body, influencing pain perception, mood, and overall health.

Primarily, endorphins function as powerful pain relievers. When the body experiences physical or emotional stress, the brain responds by releasing endorphins, which bind to receptors in the brain and spinal cord. This interaction blocks the transmission of pain signals, leading to a sense of relaxation. In fact, the pain-alleviating effects of endorphins can be likened to those of morphine since they provide a natural and effective means of pain relief.

Endorphins are closely associated with the phenomenon known as the “runner’s high.”

Notably, engaging in intense physical exercise triggers the release of endorphins, which not only diminish pain but also evoke feelings of pleasure. This pleasurable effect contributes to an improved mood, reduced anxiety, and heightened self-esteem. Therefore, activities that induce the release of endorphins through exercise, such as running, swimming, or dancing, can have a profound impact on our mental and emotional state.

The territory of endorphins

Beyond their role in pain regulation and pleasure, endorphins play a significant role in appetite and digestion. These neurotransmitters can influence the release of important hormones such as insulin and leptin. Insulin helps regulate blood sugar levels, while leptin signals feelings of hunger and fullness. Research suggests that endorphins can enhance feelings of satiety and reduce food cravings. Moreover, endorphins contribute to the body’s immune response. By increasing the activity of immune cells and promoting the production of cytokines, endorphins defend against infections and reduce inflammation. This indicates that these neurotransmitters have broader implications for maintaining a healthy immune system.

In the realm of mental health, endorphins have been found to exert positive effects. They possess antidepressant and anxiolytic properties, capable of reducing symptoms associated with depression and anxiety. Additionally, studies suggest that endorphins may offer neuroprotective benefits, potentially helping to prevent age-related cognitive decline and certain forms of dementia.

More Than Feel-Good Hormones!

Interestingly, endorphins are also involved in the brain’s reward system, which influences addictive behaviors. Drugs such as opioids and cocaine can trigger the release of endorphins, resulting in a powerful rush of euphoria. This rewarding effect can lead to addiction as individuals seek to replicate those pleasurable experiences. And this is why understanding the role of endorphins in addiction sheds light on the complex relationship between brain chemistry and addictive behaviors.

To naturally boost endorphin levels, various activities and behaviors have been identified. Engaging in regular exercise, such as aerobic workouts or strength training, has been shown to stimulate the release of endorphins, leading to enhanced mood and pain relief. Practices like meditation and mindfulness have also been found to increase endorphin production, promoting relaxation and well-being. Activities that elicit laughter, such as watching comedies or spending time with friends, can also trigger endorphin release, providing a natural mood boost. Even consuming spicy foods has been associated with the release of endorphins.

Happy Chemical – Takeaway

In conclusion, understanding the functions and roles of serotonin, dopamine, oxytocin, and endorphins provides valuable insights into our overall well-being and mental health. Every happy chemical we talked through has its unique and significant function!

Dopamine: It plays a role in reward and pleasure, motivation, focus, and motor control. Dopamine imbalances can affect motivation, lead to addiction, and impact mental health.
Serotonin: The most known happy chemical which regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and pain perception. Low levels of serotonin are linked to depression and anxiety, while high levels promote happiness.
Oxytocin: It promotes social bonding, trust, and positive emotions. Oxytocin is associated with feelings of connection and plays a role in various social interactions.
Endorphins: They act as natural painkillers, reduce stress, enhance mood, and promote a sense of pleasure. Endorphins are released during physical exercise, contributing to the well-known “runner’s high.”

Happy Chemicals in Brain

Maintaining a healthy balance of these happy chemicals is of utmost importance. And if you want some practical tips, check them out below:

Engage in regular exercise: Physical activity stimulates the release of endorphins, boosts serotonin levels, and contributes to overall mood improvement.
Practice mindfulness and meditation: These techniques can increase serotonin levels, reduce stress, and promote relaxation.
Foster social connections: Interacting with loved ones, engaging in meaningful conversations, and participating in social activities can increase oxytocin levels and enhance well-being.
Seek pleasurable experiences: Engage in activities that bring joy and pleasure, such as hobbies, laughter, and spending time in nature. These experiences can stimulate dopamine release and enhance mood.
Prioritize self-care: Adequate sleep, balanced nutrition, and managing stress are essential for maintaining a healthy balance of these neurotransmitters.

So, remember to incorporate these practices into your daily life. This will help you cultivate a healthy balance of your “happy chemicals”!

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