Neuroscience Basics

December 2 2023

Systems Neuroscience: Definition, Importance, Applications and More!

George Nestoros All blog posts, Neuroscience Basics systems neuroscience

The human brain, with its billions of neurons and intricate networks, is one of the most complex and fascinating organs in the human body. Think about it. How does it work? How does it give rise to our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors? In this article, we will try to understand what is systems neuroscience, its importance, and the exciting possibilities it presents.

What is Systems Neuroscience?

Systems neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience. It focuses on understanding how different parts of the brain and nervous system work together to produce complex processes. Consequently, systems neuroscience studies how neural circuits (networks of neurons) integrate and process information to control behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.

However, unlike other areas of neuroscience that may focus on individual neurons or specific brain regions, systems neuroscience looks at the broader picture. How do these elements interact as a whole system? As a result, this field combines experimental techniques from biology, psychology, and physics with theoretical models to understand the complex dynamics of neural systems.

The ultimate goal is to see how the brain’s intricate network of connections gives life to human experience and behavior.

Why is Systems Neuroscience Important?

Systems neuroscience is critically important for understanding the brain’s complex networks for several reasons:

Integration of Brain Functions: It helps in comprehending how different brain regions and neural circuits work together to produce integrated functions like memory, learning, and decision-making. This integration is crucial for understanding the full scope of brain activity.
Understanding Behavior: By studying neural networks, systems neuroscience provides insights into the biological basis of behaviors. This includes how we respond to stimuli, make choices, and adapt to our environment.
Cognitive Processes: It sheds light on the neural underpinnings of cognitive functions such as attention, perception, and consciousness. Understanding these processes is key to addressing cognitive disorders and enhancing cognitive abilities. We can even go deeper into topics such as consciousness and finally make sense of why we all are here!
Neurological and Mental Health Disorders: Systems neuroscience aids in identifying how disruptions in neural networks can lead to neurological and psychiatric disorders. As you can imagine, this understanding is essential for developing effective treatments and interventions.
Bridging Biological and Psychological Perspectives: This field bridges the gap between the biological processes in the brain and psychological phenomena. Thus it offers a more comprehensive understanding of mental processes and behaviors.

In essence, systems neuroscience is crucial for a holistic approach on how the brain functions as an interconnected system. A system that influences everything from basic sensory processing to complex functions such as thought and behavior.

Key Components of Systems Neuroscience

As a way to understand the role of systems neuroscience, we first need to see its key concepts. The three primary components of neural systems are the neurons, synapses, and neural circuits.

Neuron

Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. They are specialized cells responsible for transmitting and processing information in the brain and throughout the body.

Each neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and provides the necessary life support for the cell. Dendrites extend from the cell body and receive signals from other neurons, while the axon is a long, slender projection that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body.

Neurons communicate with each other via these impulses, playing a vital role in every action, thought, and emotion experienced by an organism.

Synapses

Synapses are the junctions where neurons connect and communicate. They are critical for the transmission of information across neurons.

There are two main types of synapses: electrical and chemical.

Electrical synapses allow direct flow of ionic current from one neuron to another, facilitating rapid communication.
Chemical synapses are more common in the human brain. They involve the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron (the neuron sending the signal) into the synaptic cleft, a small gap between the neurons. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron (the neuron receiving the signal), triggering a response (excitatory or inhibitory).

Neural Circuits

Neural circuits are networks of neurons interconnected by synapses, forming pathways that process and transmit information. These circuits can be relatively simple, involving a few neurons, or incredibly complex, encompassing millions of neurons.

These circuits are the basis for all neural functions, from basic reflexes to sophisticated cognitive processes. The organization and interaction of neural circuits determine how the nervous system interprets sensory information, makes decisions, and controls bodily actions.

The plasticity of these circuits, meaning their ability to change and adapt in response to experience, is a fundamental aspect of learning and memory.

In simple words, neurons act as the information processing units, synapses as the communication links, and neural circuits as the complex networks that underlie every aspect of brain function and behavior.

But how all these are measured?

Research Methods and Technologies in Systems Neuroscience

Some technologies have been developed recently that help neuroscientists to examine theories and data. Research methods such as fMRI, EEG, and optogenetics have collectively advanced our understanding of the brain’s complex networks.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

fMRI is a non-invasive imaging technique that measures and maps brain activity. It detects changes in blood flow and oxygen levels in the brain, which are indicative of neural activity. fMRI has been pivotal in identifying the brain regions involved in various cognitive functions and behaviors. It allows researchers to observe the brain “in action” and understand which areas are activated during specific tasks or in response to certain stimuli.

Impact on Understanding Neural Systems: fMRI has provided insights into the functional organization of the brain. This helps to map out which areas are responsible for various tasks and how different brain regions interact.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

EEG involves placing electrodes on the scalp to record electrical activity in the brain. This method is essential for studying the temporal dynamics of brain activity, as it provides real-time data on electrical patterns such as brain waves. EEG is widely used in research on sleep, cognition, and neurological disorders. Its high temporal resolution makes it particularly useful for understanding the timing of neural processes.

Impact on Understanding Neural Systems: EEG has been crucial in understanding the brain’s electrical activity and its relation to different states of consciousness, cognitive processes, and various neurological conditions.

Interstingly, EEG has now become a home-used device. More specifically, it is used for monitoring brain waves during meditation. You don’t believe me? Check this: Brain Waves During Meditation – Time To Use A Monitoring Device?

Optogenetics

A more recent advancement, optogenetics, allows for the control of specific neurons in living tissue using light. This method involves genetically modifying neurons to express light-sensitive ion channels. By shining light on specific wavelengths, researchers can activate or inhibit these neurons. Optogenetics has revolutionized neuroscience by providing precise control over individual neurons and neural circuits.

Impact on Understanding Neural Systems: Optogenetics has allowed scientists to explore the causal relationships between specific neural activities and behaviors, offering a more in-depth understanding of neural circuits’ roles.

Indeed, optogenetics is a very interesting field. Karl Deisseroth’s book Projections: A Story of Human Emotions by Karl Deisseroth explains a lot about this method.

Major Discoveries in Systems Neuroscience

Systems neuroscience has witnessed several significant historical discoveries. In fact, there is a very interesting article posted in The Journal of Neuroscience: The Next 50 Years of Neuroscience. Within this article, among others, the writers discuss the below:

Advancements in Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience: Over the past 50 years, our understanding of the cellular and molecular processes that drive thoughts, desires, and actions has grown immensely. This progress was facilitated by technological innovations like patch-clamp electrophysiology, PCR, and genomic sequencing. These advancements have propelled us toward comprehending how billions of brain components work together to generate behavior, lead to disease, and differentiate the human brain from other species.
Neurodevelopment Research: This field has made substantial strides in understanding how internal and external factors influence the development of individual neurons, circuits, and the brain, affecting disease risk and behavior. Key focuses include transcriptional characterization of neurons and the use of whole genome sequencing to map cell lineage. These approaches have been pivotal in revealing how neural progenitors form complex circuits in the nervous system.
Evolution of Brain Mapping: Our understanding of the brain has evolved from knowing just 47 brain regions in 1909 to a current map featuring 98 regions in the cortex alone. The development of genetic tools has enabled more precise manipulation of circuits in animal models, enhancing our understanding of sensory processing, motor control, and memory.
Gene-Editing Strategies: The recent development of virally mediated gene-editing strategies has been transformative. These techniques have brought circuit-based experiments to the forefront, elucidating the connections and specific roles of unique neural populations. This progress is expected to continue, possibly contributing to our understanding of neural ensembles and consciousness.

Current Research Trends in Systems Neuroscience

Recent trends and hot topics in systems neuroscience reflect the ongoing evolution as they mentioned in the Qmenta’s article about neuroscince trends.

Psychedelics Treatments: Psychedelic drugs are being researched for their potential in treating various psychological disorders. Studies indicate that substances like psilocybin and MDMA may alter brain communication patterns, potentially aiding in the treatment of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and more. We have also tried to make an overview of Psychedelics and its use to treat Depression. And the truth is that psychedelics might be the future of treatment!
Brain Implants: Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), like those developed by companies such as Braingate and Neuralink, are emerging technologies. They enable communication between the brain and electronic devices. They aim to restore function in individuals affected by neurological disorders like Parkinson’s Disease, stroke, and spinal cord injury.
Advancements in MRI Technology: MRI machines are evolving in two directions. Larger and more capable, and smaller and more portable. The introduction of high-field 7 Tesla MRI scanners has allowed for unprecedented insights into the human body and brain.
New PET Radiotracers: Novel positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers have shown promise in measuring brain changes in diseases like Alzheimer’s before symptoms appear. These tracers are crucial for guiding the discovery and development of disease-modifying therapeutics in neurodegenerative diseases.
AI Diagnostics in Clinical Practice: The use of AI and machine-learning-based biomarker tools in neuroscience is on the rise. These tools are expected to become more integrated into clinical practice, assisting in tasks like tumor segmentation in MRI scans, and increasing diagnostic accuracy. The NHS AI Lab in the UK is one example of an initiative pushing this integration forward.

These current trends reflect the field’s ongoing endeavor to deepen our understanding of the brain and improve the treatment and management of neurological disorders.

Applications and Implications

Research in systems neuroscience has a wide range of applications that significantly impact various aspects of health, technology, and understanding human cognition.

1. Developing Treatments for Neurological Disorders

By understanding how neural networks malfunction in disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and epilepsy, systems neuroscience research can lead to the development of more effective treatments. This includes both pharmacological interventions and techniques like deep brain stimulation, which can alleviate symptoms and improve quality of life for patients with these conditions.

2. Enhancing Learning and Memory

Insights into the neural circuits involved in learning and memory can lead to methods for enhancing these cognitive functions. This could be particularly beneficial in educational settings and for individuals with learning disabilities or memory impairments. Techniques such as neurofeedback and targeted brain stimulation are being explored as ways to enhance cognitive capabilities.

3. Creating Advanced AI Systems

The study of neural networks and brain function is a key inspiration for the development of artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms. By mimicking the way the brain processes and integrates information, researchers can develop more sophisticated and efficient AI systems. This not only advances technology but also provides a feedback loop, as AI can be used to model and understand the brain’s functioning better.

Ethical Considerations

The research in systems neuroscience, while promising, raises several ethical considerations and future implications:

Privacy and Consent

With advanced neuroimaging and brain-computer interfaces, there are concerns about privacy and the potential misuse of neural data. Ensuring informed consent and maintaining strict confidentiality are essential.

Neuroenhancement

The potential for enhancing cognitive abilities raises questions about fairness, access, and the definition of ‘normal’ brain function. There are concerns about creating inequalities or societal pressures to use such enhancements.

AI and Autonomy

The development of AI systems based on neural principles could lead to ethical dilemmas around autonomy, consciousness, and the treatment of AI entities.

Harmful Use

There’s a risk that neurological research could be used for harmful purposes, such as developing neuro-weapons or methods of mind control, emphasizing the need for ethical guidelines and regulations.

Impact on Identity and Agency

Interventions that alter brain function could affect an individual’s sense of self or agency, raising philosophical questions about identity and the nature of the human experience.

Indeed this research could lead us to a Black Mirror episode!

The future implications of systems neuroscience research are profound and require careful ethical consideration and dialogue among scientists, ethicists, policymakers, and the public to ensure responsible and beneficial use of these advancements.

Conclusion

In conclusion, systems neuroscience stands as a pivotal field in understanding the complex networks of the brain and their influence on behavior and cognitive functions. Through its study of neurons, synapses, and neural circuits, and the employment of advanced methods like fMRI, EEG, and optogenetics, it has made significant strides to explore the intricacies of neural interactions and processing. Major historical discoveries and current research trends highlight its dynamic nature, with applications ranging from treating neurological disorders to enhancing cognitive functions and developing sophisticated AI systems.

However, the ethical implications of these advancements necessitate careful consideration. The future potential of systems neuroscience is vast, holding promise not only in the realm of healthcare and technology but also in enriching our understanding of the human experience, ensuring its significance across various fields.

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May 28 2023

Happy Chemical: Serotonin, Dopamine, Oxytocin and Endorphins

George Nestoros All blog posts, Mental Health, Neuroscience Basics dopamine, endorphins, Happy chemical, Neuroscience, oxytocin, serotonin

Happy Chemical in Brain

Happy Chemical is not only our website name, which is very cool, but it’s also referring to a chemical compound that causes a feeling of happiness in a person.

Have you ever thought about what happens in the human brain when feeling happy? What neurotransmitters are secreted when someone is excited? We don’t usually examine our feelings that way but, think about it. How do you feel right now? Are you sad? Are you happy? Do you feel grateful and content? Or maybe you are stressed? Whatever you answered, behind this answer, a chemical profile causes your feelings.

For instance, right now, the exact moment, while I am writing this article, I feel focused, motivated, and a little anxious. This possibly means that my chemical profile consists of higher levels of dopamine (motivation), acetylcholine (focus), and epinephrine (anxiety). Okay, I know, this is oversimplified, yet it’s true!

4 Happy Chemicals

The human body and especially the human brain is very complex. Even though scientists have been trying to deconstruct its function for years, too many things remain in the dark waiting to be found. However, we know the four main compounds when it comes to brain chemicals for happiness.

Dopamine, Serotonin, Oxytocin, and Endorphins.

These are the well-known neurotransmitters/hormones that could be considered the “happy chemicals” due to their effect on our mood. Let’s examine them.

Dopamine Function

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in our brain’s reward and pleasure system, as well as in several other important functions such as motivation, mood regulation, attention, movement, decision-making, and cognitive processes. Produced by dopaminergic neurons in different regions of the brain, including the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, and hypothalamus, dopamine acts as a reward signal.

When we experience something pleasurable, such as a delicious meal, dopamine is released, creating a sense of pleasure and motivating us to seek similar experiences. This reinforcement mechanism drives behaviors crucial for our survival, such as eating, drinking, and socializing.

A Happy Chemical With a Mulitfaced Role

Dopamine also plays a significant role in regulating our moods and emotions. Low levels of this happy chemical have been associated with depression, while excessive dopamine activity has been linked to mania and psychosis, highlighting the importance of maintaining a balanced dopamine system for emotional well-being.

Beyond reward and mood regulation, dopamine influences attention and movement. It helps us focus on important information and ignore distractions, while also being crucial for initiating and coordinating movement. In Parkinson’s disease, the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra leads to severe dopamine depletion, resulting in the characteristic movement difficulties associated with the condition.

The profound effects of changes in dopamine levels demonstrate the impact of dopamine on behavior. Drugs that increase dopamine, such as cocaine and amphetamines, can induce intense pleasure and euphoria, leading to addiction and harmful behaviors. Conversely, drugs that decrease dopamine levels, such as antipsychotics, can cause side effects such as apathy, anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), and movement disorders.

Recent research has revealed additional roles of dopamine in decision-making, social behaviors, and cognitive processes. Dopamine has been implicated in social bonding and attachment, contributing to forming and maintaining social relationships.

It also plays a critical role in assessing the expected value of different options and influencing our choices accordingly. (What?)

Dopamine and Anticipation

You basically see something (activity, material stuff, or even a state of being) and your brain makes an estimation of the pleasure/satisfaction you might have if you get it. Then based on this estimation, the brain triggers the seeking and the anticipation of this something (activity, material stuff, or even state of being).

And if the acquisition of this won’t give the pleasure that your brain has estimated, then your dopamine levels will be crushed.

So if your brain thinks that having the brand new car that just passed by will make you happy, then probably you will be disappointed some days after you buy it!

Understanding dopamine’s impact on behavior is crucial for the treatment of neurological and psychological disorders. Medications targeting the dopamine system are commonly used for conditions like Parkinson’s disease, depression, and ADHD. However, the complex interplay between dopamine and other neurotransmitters means that these drugs can have significant side effects and may not be effective for everyone.

Advancements in neuroscience have expanded our knowledge of dopamine’s role in the brain. Studies have revealed its involvement in learning, decision-making, habit formation, and higher cognitive functions such as working memory and creativity. Dopamine modulates neural circuits underlying these processes, and alterations in dopamine levels can influence their outcomes.

Serotonin Function

The Most Known Happy Hormone

Serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, behavior, and various physiological processes. Produced in the brainstem by a group of neurons called raphe nuclei, serotonin acts as a chemical messenger, transmitting signals between nerve cells throughout the brain and central nervous system. It is not just a happy chemical since its function is diverse and essential for our overall well-being.

At the forefront of serotonin’s functions is its influence on mood regulation. Often referred to as the “feel-good” neurotransmitter, serotonin helps create feelings of happiness, contentment, and emotional balance. Low levels of serotonin have been associated with depression and anxiety disorders, while higher levels are linked to increased happiness and a sense of wellness.

Serotonin also plays a role in regulating sleep patterns and appetite. It helps to regulate the sleep-wake cycle, promoting healthy sleep and contributing to a restful night’s rest. Additionally, serotonin influences appetite and plays a part in the feeling of satiety and the regulation of food intake. Beyond these effects on mood, sleep, and appetite, serotonin is involved in pain perception and the regulation of cardiovascular function.

The serotonin guide

Various factors can influence serotonin levels in the brain. First of all, genetics. They play a role in determining the functioning of serotonin receptors and the efficiency of serotonin production and reuptake. Moreover, environmental factors, such as stress, can also impact serotonin levels. Chronic stress can deplete serotonin stores and disrupt its normal functioning.

Fortunately, there are natural ways to boost serotonin levels. Regular exercise increases serotonin production in the brain, leading to improved mood. Likewise, exposure to natural sunlight also stimulates the production of serotonin. Moreover, engaging in activities that bring joy, pursuing hobbies, spending time with loved ones, and practicing relaxation techniques like meditation and deep breathing can all contribute to serotonin levels.

lady exercising — **Exercise is one of the best tools for fighting depression!**

While lifestyle factors can influence serotonin levels, it’s important to note that serotonin balance is a complex process, and individual responses may vary. In some cases, medication may be necessary to address serotonin imbalances associated with clinical conditions like depression. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly prescribed to increase serotonin levels and alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety disorders. It’s always recommended to consult with a healthcare professional for personalized advice and guidance.

Understanding the multifaceted function of serotonin and the factors that influence its levels empowers us to take proactive steps towards enhancing our mood, promoting emotional well-being, and leading happier, more balanced lives. By adopting lifestyle choices that support optimal serotonin functioning, such as engaging in regular physical activity, spending time in nature, nurturing relationships, and practicing self-care, we can positively influence our serotonin levels and overall mental health.

Difference Between Serotonin and Dopamine

Because of our days’ oversimplification, we need to emphasize the difference between the most known happy chemicals. Dopamine and serotonin are two key neurotransmitters that play significant roles in the brain and have distinct functions. While both contribute to our experience of happiness, they have different mechanisms and effects on mental health.

Dopamine is primarily involved in the brain’s reward and motivation system. It plays a crucial role in reinforcing behaviors that are essential for our survival, such as eating, drinking, and socializing. Dopamine is released when we engage in pleasurable activities, creating a sense of enjoyment and motivating us to seek out similar experiences. It also influences our attention, focus, and movement coordination.

On the other hand, serotonin is involved in regulating mood, emotions, and overall well-being. It contributes to feelings of happiness, contentment, and emotional balance. Serotonin helps modulate our sleep-wake cycle, appetite, and pain perception. It plays a significant role in maintaining stable mood states and promoting a sense of calm and relaxation.

While both happy chemicals contribute to happiness, they differ in their specific roles and effects. Dopamine is associated with the anticipation and pursuit of rewards, while serotonin is more closely linked to our overall emotional state and mood stability. Dopamine creates a sense of pleasure and motivation to seek rewards, while serotonin promotes a sense of contentment, emotional well-being, and satisfaction with life.

Oxytocin Function

Oxytocin, the “love hormone”, is a powerful neurotransmitter and hormone that plays a vital role in social bonding, trust, and positive emotions. Its function extends beyond the brain, as it also acts as a hormone released by the pituitary gland into the bloodstream.

In the brain, this happy chemical is primarily associated with social behaviors and interpersonal connections. It is released during various social interactions, fostering feelings of closeness, empathy, and trust. Oxytocin helps to strengthen social bonds, whether between romantic partners, friends, family members, or even between mothers and infants.

One of the key roles of oxytocin is its involvement in facilitating social bonding and attachment. It promotes feelings of connectedness and intimacy between individuals. Oxytocin is particularly important in romantic relationships, as it enhances feelings of love, affection, and trust between partners. It also plays a crucial role in maternal-infant bonding, facilitating the strong emotional connection between mothers and their newborns.

Oxytocin is also associated with prosocial behaviors and positive emotions. It increases generosity, empathy, and cooperation among individuals. Oxytocin even promotes a sense of altruism and the willingness to help others. Oxytocin can enhance feelings of happiness, contentment, and overall well-being, contributing to positive social interactions and a sense of belonging.

Various activities and situations can increase the release of oxytocin in the brain. Physical touch, such as hugging, cuddling, or holding hands, is a potent stimulator of oxytocin release. Positive social interactions, such as spending quality time with loved ones, engaging in meaningful conversations, and showing acts of kindness, can also elevate oxytocin levels. Sharing meals, participating in group activities, and engaging in bonding rituals or ceremonies are examples of situations that can increase oxytocin release.

Oxytocin: 5 Facts You Didn’t Know About The “Love Hormone”

You can find more fascinating facts about the love hormone in our post.

Endorphins Function

Endorphins, which are neurotransmitters produced in the human brain, have a profound impact on various aspects of our wellness. Derived from the words “endogenous” and “morphine,” these natural chemicals serve as the body’s own painkillers and are involved in promoting pleasurable sensations. Produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus, endorphins are released into the bloodstream. Then they bind to receptors throughout the body, influencing pain perception, mood, and overall health.

Primarily, endorphins function as powerful pain relievers. When the body experiences physical or emotional stress, the brain responds by releasing endorphins, which bind to receptors in the brain and spinal cord. This interaction blocks the transmission of pain signals, leading to a sense of relaxation. In fact, the pain-alleviating effects of endorphins can be likened to those of morphine since they provide a natural and effective means of pain relief.

Endorphins are closely associated with the phenomenon known as the “runner’s high.”

Notably, engaging in intense physical exercise triggers the release of endorphins, which not only diminish pain but also evoke feelings of pleasure. This pleasurable effect contributes to an improved mood, reduced anxiety, and heightened self-esteem. Therefore, activities that induce the release of endorphins through exercise, such as running, swimming, or dancing, can have a profound impact on our mental and emotional state.

The territory of endorphins

Beyond their role in pain regulation and pleasure, endorphins play a significant role in appetite and digestion. These neurotransmitters can influence the release of important hormones such as insulin and leptin. Insulin helps regulate blood sugar levels, while leptin signals feelings of hunger and fullness. Research suggests that endorphins can enhance feelings of satiety and reduce food cravings. Moreover, endorphins contribute to the body’s immune response. By increasing the activity of immune cells and promoting the production of cytokines, endorphins defend against infections and reduce inflammation. This indicates that these neurotransmitters have broader implications for maintaining a healthy immune system.

In the realm of mental health, endorphins have been found to exert positive effects. They possess antidepressant and anxiolytic properties, capable of reducing symptoms associated with depression and anxiety. Additionally, studies suggest that endorphins may offer neuroprotective benefits, potentially helping to prevent age-related cognitive decline and certain forms of dementia.

More Than Feel-Good Hormones!

Interestingly, endorphins are also involved in the brain’s reward system, which influences addictive behaviors. Drugs such as opioids and cocaine can trigger the release of endorphins, resulting in a powerful rush of euphoria. This rewarding effect can lead to addiction as individuals seek to replicate those pleasurable experiences. And this is why understanding the role of endorphins in addiction sheds light on the complex relationship between brain chemistry and addictive behaviors.

To naturally boost endorphin levels, various activities and behaviors have been identified. Engaging in regular exercise, such as aerobic workouts or strength training, has been shown to stimulate the release of endorphins, leading to enhanced mood and pain relief. Practices like meditation and mindfulness have also been found to increase endorphin production, promoting relaxation and well-being. Activities that elicit laughter, such as watching comedies or spending time with friends, can also trigger endorphin release, providing a natural mood boost. Even consuming spicy foods has been associated with the release of endorphins.

Happy Chemical – Takeaway

In conclusion, understanding the functions and roles of serotonin, dopamine, oxytocin, and endorphins provides valuable insights into our overall well-being and mental health. Every happy chemical we talked through has its unique and significant function!

Dopamine: It plays a role in reward and pleasure, motivation, focus, and motor control. Dopamine imbalances can affect motivation, lead to addiction, and impact mental health.
Serotonin: The most known happy chemical which regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and pain perception. Low levels of serotonin are linked to depression and anxiety, while high levels promote happiness.
Oxytocin: It promotes social bonding, trust, and positive emotions. Oxytocin is associated with feelings of connection and plays a role in various social interactions.
Endorphins: They act as natural painkillers, reduce stress, enhance mood, and promote a sense of pleasure. Endorphins are released during physical exercise, contributing to the well-known “runner’s high.”

Happy Chemicals in Brain

Maintaining a healthy balance of these happy chemicals is of utmost importance. And if you want some practical tips, check them out below:

Engage in regular exercise: Physical activity stimulates the release of endorphins, boosts serotonin levels, and contributes to overall mood improvement.
Practice mindfulness and meditation: These techniques can increase serotonin levels, reduce stress, and promote relaxation.
Foster social connections: Interacting with loved ones, engaging in meaningful conversations, and participating in social activities can increase oxytocin levels and enhance well-being.
Seek pleasurable experiences: Engage in activities that bring joy and pleasure, such as hobbies, laughter, and spending time in nature. These experiences can stimulate dopamine release and enhance mood.
Prioritize self-care: Adequate sleep, balanced nutrition, and managing stress are essential for maintaining a healthy balance of these neurotransmitters.

So, remember to incorporate these practices into your daily life. This will help you cultivate a healthy balance of your “happy chemicals”!

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References

April 23 2023

Sleep – The Neuroscience Behind The Most Vital Part of Life

George Nestoros All blog posts, Health and Longevity, Mental Health, Neuroscience Basics neuroscience of sleep, Sleep

Introduction

What is sleep? Did you ever try to answer this question? Imagine this: An alien arrives on Earth and wonders what is sleep. “Why are you unplugged for 6-8 hours every day?” He might ask. How do you properly address such a simple question?

Well, firstly sleep is a vital part of life, and it is something that everyone needs. It is a natural and essential state of being for all living creatures, including humans. A time when the body and mind undergo critical restorative processes, allowing us to recharge for the day ahead.

Is this enough? No, I don’t think so!

Sleep is a fundamental aspect of human life, yet it remains one of the least understood processes of the brain. Scientists have long been fascinated by the neuroscience of sleep, as it plays a crucial role in our mental and physical well-being. In recent years, advancements in technology and imaging techniques have allowed researchers to delve deeper into the inner workings of the sleeping brain uncovering new insights into the complex mechanisms that underlie this essential biological process.

In this article, we will provide an overview of the neuroscience of sleep. Based on the latest research and discoveries we will explore the different stages of sleep, the brain areas involved in it, and the neural mechanisms that regulate it.

The Stages of Sleep

There are two main stages of sleep: Non-REM and REM sleep. Non-REM sleep is further divided into four stages: N1, N2, N3, and N4. N1 and N2 are lighter stages, while N3 and N4 are deeper stages of sleep. REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is the stage where dreaming occurs.

During N1, which is the lightest stage of sleep, the brain waves slow down, and muscle activity decreases. People in this stage can easily wake up, and they may experience sudden muscle contractions or jerks. N2 is the next stage, and during this stage, brain waves continue to slow down, and the body temperature decreases. People spend more time in this stage than any other. During N3 and N4, also known as slow-wave sleep (SWS), the brain waves slow down even more, and the body is almost immobile. It is difficult to wake someone up from this stage. Even if they do wake up, they may feel disoriented or groggy.

REM sleep is the stage where dreaming occurs, and it is characterized by rapid eye movement and muscle paralysis. In the time of REM sleep, your brain activity picks up, and your eyes move rapidly back and forth. During this stage, the brain waves are similar to those during wakefulness, and the heart rate and breathing become irregular. REM sleep is essential for cognitive function and plays a crucial role in memory consolidation and emotional regulation.

Brain Areas Involved

Sleep is regulated by a complex network of brain areas that work together to control the different stages of sleep. The main brain areas involved in the most vital part of life are the hypothalamus, thalamus, basal forebrain, and brainstem.

The thalamus is a sensory gateway that processes information from the senses and relays it to the cortex. It also plays a role in regulating sleep by filtering out sensory information during sleep. This feature may prevent the brain from being overwhelmed.

The basal forebrain is a group of neurons located at the base of the brain that produces the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine plays a crucial role in promoting wakefulness, and its levels decrease during sleep.

sleeping brain — AI-generated picture: *A brain sleeping in a bed*.

Then it’s the brainstem. A region at the base of the brain that controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also contains the reticular activating system (RAS), which is responsible for regulating wakefulness and alertness.

Last but not least, is the hypothalamus. It is a small area at the base of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating sleep. It contains a group of neurons called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is the body’s master clock. The SCN regulates the circadian rhythms, which is the body’s internal clock that controls the sleep-wake cycle.

Neural Mechanisms that Regulate Sleep

So, how does your brain know when it’s time to turn off? Sleep is regulated by a complex interplay of neural mechanisms that work together to control the different stages of sleep and wakefulness. The main mechanisms involved in its regulation are the circadian rhythm, the sleep-wake homeostasis, and the ultradian rhythm.

Circadian Rhythms

Circadian rhythms refer to the internal biological processes that follow a 24-hour cycle and regulate a variety of physiological and behavioral functions. These rhythms are present in almost all living organisms, including humans. A group of nerve cells in the brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) regulates the body’s internal clock. The SCN receives signals from the eyes that help it determine whether it is day or night. Then it uses this information to regulate the release of hormones and other physiological processes that influence our sleep, wakefulness, hunger, and other bodily functions.

The circadian rhythms play a crucial role in maintaining overall health and well-being, as they help to ensure that various bodily processes are properly timed and synchronized with the external environment. These rhythms influence the sleep-wake cycle, body temperature, hormone production, metabolism, and immune system function, among other bodily functions. Disruptions to these rhythms, such as those caused by shift work, jet lag, or an irregular sleep schedule, can significantly negatively affect health. These may include an increased risk of metabolic, cardiovascular, and mood disorders.

Either control them or they control you!

The timing and duration of sleep are closely tied to circadian rhythms. The circadian clock regulates the release of the hormone melatonin, which is responsible for promoting sleepiness. Melatonin levels increase in the evening and reach their peak in the middle of the night, and then gradually decrease as morning approaches. This process helps to promote healthy sleep patterns, with the majority of sleep occurring during the nighttime hours.

In addition to regulating sleep, circadian rhythms also play a role in regulating mood, alertness, and cognitive function. For example, research has shown that individuals who are exposed to light at night may experience disruptions in their circadian rhythms, which can lead to mood disorders such as depression and anxiety. This is because light exposure at night can interfere with the production of melatonin, which in turn can disrupt the sleep-wake cycle and other physiological processes that are regulated by the circadian rhythms.

Several strategies can help to regulate circadian rhythms and promote healthy sleep patterns. The best strategy is to maintain a regular schedule, by going to bed and waking up at the same time every day, even on weekends. This can help to ensure that the body’s internal clock remains in sync with the external environment. Exposure to natural light during the day, particularly in the morning, can also help to regulate circadian rhythms and promote the desired healthy patterns. Conversely, exposure to bright light at night should be minimized, as it can interfere with the production of melatonin and disrupt the sleep-wake cycle.

Sleep-wake homeostasis

The sleep-wake homeostasis is a critical mechanism that regulates the amount and quality of sleep that an individual needs. It is based on the idea that the longer someone is awake, the more likely they are to feel sleepy, and vice versa. This concept was first introduced in the early 20th century by the French physiologist, Alfred Batelli.

The sleep-wake homeostasis mechanism is regulated by a neurotransmitter called adenosine. Adenosine levels in the brain gradually increase during waking hours, reflecting the activity of the brain’s cells. As adenosine levels rise, it inhibits the activity of neurons that promote wakefulness. Hence, it promotes the activity of neurons that promote sleepiness. This process builds up over the day until you reach a certain level of sleepiness which send you to bed.

It’s coffee time!

And here is where caffeine comes in. We all know that caffeine is a stimulant that is commonly consumed not only to improve cognitive performance but also to promote wakefulness. The way that caffeine can have this significant impact on promoting wakefulness is by affecting sleep-wake homeostasis.

More specifically, caffeine works by blocking the activity of adenosine receptors in the brain. This means that caffeine can reduce the buildup of adenosine and inhibit its sleep-promoting effects. Hence, when caffeine is consumed, it promotes wakefulness and can delay the onset of sleepiness.

However, the effects of caffeine on sleep-wake homeostasis are not entirely straightforward. While caffeine can promote wakefulness in the short term, it can also disrupt the body’s natural sleep-wake cycle and lead to long-term disturbances of it. Studies have shown that consuming caffeine close to bedtime can significantly reduce the quality of sleep and lead to increased sleep latency, or the amount of time it takes to fall asleep. This is because caffeine can remain in the bloodstream for several hours after consumption, and its effects can last well into the night.

Also, regular caffeine consumption can lead to tolerance, which means that the body becomes less responsive to its effects over time. This can lead to a cycle of increasing caffeine consumption to maintain wakefulness, which can further disrupt the natural sleep-wake cycle. Furthermore, caffeine can also interfere with the timing and duration of sleep. Studies have shown that consuming caffeine in the afternoon or evening can delay the onset of sleep and reduce the amount of slow-wave sleep, which is a crucial stage for a night of restorative and restful sleep.

So, remember folks, coffee is a great tool when used moderately!

Back to sleep-wake homeostasis

This homeostasis mechanism is essential for maintaining the body’s natural sleep-wake cycle, which is critical for optimal physical and mental health. When an individual sleeps, adenosine levels in the brain decrease, allowing the neurons that promote wakefulness to become more active. This helps an individual to feel more alert and awake upon waking up, and to be able to perform daily activities more effectively.

Disruptions to the sleep-wake homeostasis mechanism can have significant negative impacts on an individual’s overall health and well-being. For example, people who are deprived of sleep for prolonged periods may experience fatigue, decreased cognitive function, mood disturbances, and a range of other negative effects. This can lead to decreased productivity, impaired decision-making, and increased risk of accidents and injuries.

There are several ways to help regulate the sleep-wake homeostasis mechanism and promote better sleep hygiene. Again the best way is to maintain a consistent bedtime schedule. Further to this, remember to avoid caffeine and alcohol before bedtime. As was already mentioned these substances can interfere with sleep quality and quantity. In addition, engaging in regular physical activity promotes better sleep, as can a comfortable bedroom that is quiet, dark, and cool.

The Ultradian Rhythms

Ultradian rhythms are biological rhythms that occur more than once a day, with a frequency of fewer than 24 hours. These rhythms are distinct from circadian rhythms, which occur once a day. Ultradian rhythms are present in a wide range of biological processes, including hormone secretion, appetite regulation, and of course, sleep patterns. In the context of sleep, ultradian rhythms refer to the natural cycles of sleep stages that occur throughout the night.

In regard to sleep..

During sleep, the body goes through a series of cycles that typically last around 90-110 minutes. Each cycle consists of several stages, including light, deep, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. These stages are characterized by different patterns of brain activity, muscle tone, and eye movement. Each cycle typically ends with a brief period of wakefulness before the next cycle begins.

Within each cycle, there are also ultradian rhythms that occur. These rhythms refer to the natural oscillations of sleep stages that happen within each cycle. For example, during the first cycle, there may be a period of deep, restorative sleep (non-REM stage 3) followed by a shorter period of lighter sleep (non-REM stage 2) before entering REM sleep. In subsequent cycles, the amount of time spent in deep sleep may decrease, while the amount of time spent in lighter and REM sleep may increase.

These ultradian rhythms are thought to play an important role in maintaining healthy sleep patterns. The deep, restorative sleep that occurs during non-REM stage 3 is crucial for physical and mental restoration. While REM sleep is important for cognitive processing and memory consolidation.

Disruptions to these ultradian rhythms can lead to sleep disorders and other health problems. Namely, people with sleep apnea may experience disruptions in their sleep cycles due to interruptions in breathing while they are sleeping. These interruptions lead to reduced amounts of deep and REM sleep. Similarly, people with insomnia may have difficulty falling or staying asleep, leading to disruptions in their natural sleep cycles.

There are several ways to promote healthy ultradian rhythms and improve sleep quality. And again the most important way is to establish regular sleep habits and maintain a consistent “going to bed” schedule.

Neurotransmitters Involved in Sleep

Now, let’s talk neurotransmitters the chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons in the brain. Several neurotransmitters are involved in regulating sleep, including serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood and sleep. It is involved in promoting REM sleep and regulating the sleep-wake cycle. Low levels of serotonin have been linked to insomnia and other sleep disorders.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is involved in regulating reward and motivation. However, it is also involved in promoting wakefulness and reducing the duration of REM sleep. In general keep in mind when you are sleeping dopamine levels are at their lowest. And this might be the reason why you might wake up at night, or before the alarm hits when you are traveling the upcoming day. The anticipation of the trip makes the dopamine levels rise and wakes you up!

Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is involved in regulating attention, arousal, and stress. In this way, norepinephrine acts as an arousal-promoting neurotransmitter that helps keep you awake and alert. During waking hours, its levels in the brain are high, helping to promote wakefulness and maintain our attention and focus. As we start to feel tired, norepinephrine levels gradually decrease, allowing for other neurotransmitters such as adenosine and melatonin to take over and promote sleep.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that is involved in regulating wakefulness and REM sleep. It is produced by neurons in the basal forebrain and promotes wakefulness. During REM sleep, acetylcholine levels increase, which is believed to be responsible for the muscle paralysis that occurs during this stage.

Sleep Disorders

Sleep disorders are a group of conditions that affect the quality and quantity of sleep. They can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, lifestyle, and environmental factors. Some common disorders include insomnia, sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and narcolepsy.

Insomnia

Insomnia is a sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep, waking up too early, and having difficulty falling back asleep. It can be acute, lasting for a short period, or chronic, lasting for three or more nights per week for at least three months. Insomnia can be caused by a variety of factors. In particular, stress, anxiety, depression, medical conditions, medications, and environmental factors such as noise, light, and temperature.

The effects of insomnia can be significant, leading to daytime sleepiness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and other mood disturbances. Chronic insomnia can also increase the risk of developing other health problems such as depression, anxiety disorders, and cardiovascular disease.

Treatment for insomnia typically involves identifying and addressing the underlying causes of the condition, as well as implementing good sleep habits and relaxation techniques. This may include cognitive behavioral therapy to identify and change negative thoughts and behaviors related to sleep. In some cases, the individual might need prescription medications. Lifestyle changes such as regular exercise, a healthy diet, and stress management techniques can also be effective in managing insomnia.

Sleep Apnea

Apnea is a disorder characterized by interruptions in breathing during sleep. There are two main types of apnea: obstructive sleep apnea, which is caused by a blockage in the airway, and central sleep apnea, which is caused by a failure of the brain to signal the muscles to breathe. Symptoms of apnea include loud snoring, gasping or choking during sleep, and excessive daytime sleepiness.

Untreated apnea can lead to a range of health problems, including high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. It can also lead to fatigue, irritability, and difficulty concentrating during the day.

Treatment for sleep apnea may involve lifestyle changes such as weight loss, and avoiding alcohol and sedatives before bedtime. Even sleeping on one’s side rather than back might help. Continuous positive airway pressure therapy is a common treatment for sleep apnea, which involves wearing a mask over the nose or mouth that delivers a continuous stream of air to keep the airway open during sleep. Other treatments may include oral appliances, surgery, or medications to help regulate breathing during sleep.

Restless leg syndrome

Did you ever hear about restless leg syndrome? A sleep disorder characterized by an uncomfortable sensation in the legs that occurs during periods of rest or inactivity. It can lead to difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.

Restless leg syndrome (RLS), also known as Willis-Ekbom disease, is a neurological disorder that causes an irresistible urge to move the legs. People with RLS may experience uncomfortable sensations in their legs, such as itching, crawling, tingling, or burning. Usually can be temporarily relieved by moving or stretching the legs. Symptoms of RLS tend to be worse at night or when lying down for extended periods, which can make it difficult to fall and stay asleep.

The exact cause of RLS is not fully understood. It is believed though to be related to an imbalance of dopamine (regulate movement). RLS can occur independently or be associated with other medical conditions such as iron deficiency anemia, kidney disease, or even pregnancy.

Treatment for RLS may involve addressing any underlying medical conditions. Medications can also help to regulate dopamine levels in the brain. Once more time lifestyle changes such as regular exercise, avoiding caffeine and alcohol, and implementing good sleep habits. In some cases, alternative therapies such as acupuncture or massage may also be beneficial.

Narcolepsy

Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder that affects the brain’s ability to regulate sleep-wake cycles. It is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden and uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep, and sleep paralysis – a temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up. Other symptoms of narcolepsy may include hallucinations, cataplexy (sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions), and disrupted nighttime sleep.

The cause of narcolepsy seems to be related to a loss of neurons in the brain that produce hypocretin, a chemical that helps regulate wakefulness. Narcolepsy can occur on its own, or it may be associated with other medical conditions such as autoimmune disorders or infections.

Treatment for narcolepsy typically involves medications to help regulate sleep-wake cycles, such as stimulants to improve alertness during the day and antidepressants to help manage cataplexy and other symptoms. And guess what could help to manage narcolepsy symptoms? Yes, exactly, implement good sleep habits, as we discussed before.

Takeaway

All right let’s wrap our heads around the mind-blowing world of the neuroscience of sleep. We’ve delved into the intricate web of brain regions and chemical messengers that regulate the timing and quality of our precious sleep, and we’ve learned about the sleep-wake homeostasis, circadian rhythms, and ultradian rhythms that govern our sleep patterns.

But let’s not forget about the real-world impact of sleep disorders on our physical, mental, and emotional health. Insomnia, sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and narcolepsy can throw a serious wrench into our systems and can leave us feeling drained and exhausted.

Thankfully, thanks to the wonder of modern science, we have effective treatments for these disorders that can get us back to catching those elusive Z’s. Whether it’s CPAP therapy for sleep apnea, medications to regulate dopamine levels in the brain for restless leg syndrome and narcolepsy, or implementing good habits to ward off insomnia, we have the tools to get the sleep we need.

Keep also in mind that the importance of sleep goes beyond just feeling rested and alert. A good night’s rest is crucial for our physical health, mental clarity, and our emotional well-being. It affects everything from our immune system to our mood to our decision-making abilities. So, whether you’re a sleep lover or a self-proclaimed night owl, it’s important to prioritize and take care of your sleep system.

In short, sleep is no joke, folks. It’s a crucial aspect of our overall health and well-being, and we need to continue to explore the fascinating world of the neuroscience of sleep to better understand the mechanisms that govern its patterns and to develop even more effective treatments for relevant disorders.

So, get cozy, catch those Z’s, and dream big, folks. The world of sleep is waiting for you.

References

March 14 2023

Serotonin: One of The Brain’s Happy Chemicals

George Nestoros Mental Health, Neuroscience Basics serotonin, serotonin feel good

Neurotransmitter Serotonin

Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter that is widely distributed throughout the body and brain. Its function is complex and plays a crucial role in regulating many important physiological and emotional processes. From regulating mood and sleep to appetite and sexual behavior, it is involved in many different aspects of our physical and emotional well-being.

happy kid serotonin — **Generally, serotonin is considered one of the brain’s happy chemicals.**

Serotonin Happy Chemical

In this article, we will explore the function of this happy chemical in detail looking at its various roles in the body. How does it impact our overall health and well-being? Indeed, by understanding the function of serotonin, we can gain insights into how to support its function and improve our physical and emotional health. And this is what we will attempt to do!

Where is located

Serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine, is produced in the brainstem by a group of neurons called raphe nuclei. It is then released into various areas of the brain and central nervous system, where it acts as a chemical messenger to transmit signals between nerve cells.

Serotonin in the gut

Despite being well-known as a neurotransmitter in the brain, the digestive system produces the majority of the body’s serotonin. That’s why, abnormal concentrations of this peripheral serotonin have been connected to conditions like irritable bowel syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis.

Serotonin Function

Its function is complex and involves multiple pathways and receptors. There are at least 14 different types of these receptors, each with a unique function and distribution in the body. The effects of serotonin can vary depending on the location and concentration of the receptors in the body. For example, some receptors regulate mood and emotion, while others regulate appetite and digestion.

In general, serotonin is involved in regulating a wide range of functions in the body, including appetite, sleep, sexual behavior, pain perception, and cardiovascular function.

Regulating mood

One of the most well-known functions of serotonin is its role in regulating mood. Therefore you can refer to it as the “feel-good” neurotransmitter since it helps to regulate feelings of happiness and contentment. High levels of it have been associated with feelings of happiness and well-being. Low levels of serotonin, on the other, promote depression and anxiety disorders.

In fact, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressant medications commonly used to treat depression. And guess how they work! By increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain, of course.

SSRI Mechanism

When 5-hydroxytryptamine is released into the brain, it travels between nerve cells and transmits signals that regulate mood and behavior. After the signal is transmitted, the 5-hydroxytryptamine is reabsorbed back into the nerve cell from which it was released.

Here SSRIs interfere. They work by blocking the reabsorption of serotonin, allowing it to remain in the space between nerve cells for longer periods of time. Consequently, this helps to increase the levels of serotonin in the brain, which can improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.

Serotonin and Sleep

Serotonin plays a critical role in regulating sleep, particularly concerning the timing, duration, and quality of sleep. In the brain, it is involved in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle. Serotonin is responsible for regulating the body’s circadian rhythms and maintaining regular patterns of sleep and wakefulness.

When serotonin levels are low, it can disrupt the sleep-wake cycle, leading to difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, as well as decreased sleep quality. In addition, low levels have been associated with conditions such as insomnia and sleep apnea, which can significantly impact overall health and well-being.

Conversely, high levels of serotonin can promote relaxation and help individuals to fall asleep more easily. This is because 5-hydroxytryptamine is a precursor to melatonin, a hormone that helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles and promote deep, restful sleep.

One of the ways this neurotransmitter influences sleep is by modulating the activity of neurons in the brainstem that are responsible for regulating arousal and wakefulness. Serotonin helps to suppress the activity of these neurons, which in turn promotes sleep and relaxation.

Another way serotonin affects sleep is by influencing the production of other neurotransmitters and hormones regulating sleep. For example, it can increase the release of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that helps to promote relaxation and sleepiness.

Serotonin and Sexual Behavior

Our starring neurotransmitter is also involved in regulating sexual behavior and desire. Serotonin has been implicated in various sexual functions, including sexual motivation, arousal, and orgasm.

Low levels lead to a decrease in sexual desire and arousal, as well as difficulties in achieving orgasm. Hence, low serotonin levels have been associated with conditions such as sexual dysfunction and decreased libido.

The relationship between serotonin and sexual behavior is not clear-cut and can vary depending on individual factors such as age, gender, and overall health. However, high levels of serotonin could increase sexual activity and desire!

How? Mainly by influencing the release and activity of other neurotransmitters. Dopamine and norepinephrine, play a significant role in regulating sexual function. So, serotonin can either enhance or inhibit the activity of these neurotransmitters, depending on the specific receptor types that are involved, and make things happen.

More Serotonin Effects

Pain perception

In addition to its role in all the above, serotonin plays, also, role in regulating pain perception. It helps to modulate pain perception in the spinal cord and brain. Increased pain sensitivity is probably due to our star’s low levels. Imagine that, some medications that increase serotonin levels, such as SSRIs, are prescribed to treat chronic pain conditions such as fibromyalgia and migraines.

Cardiovascular function

Do you want more? What about regulating cardiovascular function? Guess which neurotransmitter helps to regulate blood pressure, heart rate, and blood clotting. Good guess, since low serotonin levels are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Immune function

And more? Ok! Serotonin is involved in the regulation of immune function. It helps to modulate the activity of immune cells and can affect the body’s response to infection and inflammation. Moreover, there are shreds of evidence that low levels of it have been linked to an increased risk of infections and autoimmune disorders. In contrast, high serotonin has been associated with allergic reactions and autoimmune disorders.

4 Ways to Increase Serotonin

Thoughts, self-induced or through psychotherapy
- The relationship between thoughts, self-induced or through psychotherapy, and serotonin is complex and not fully understood. However, there is evidence to suggest that certain types of thoughts and experiences can increase our starring neurotransmitter levels in the brain. One way in which thoughts and experiences can do this is through the activation of the serotonergic system in the brain.
Exposure to bright light
- Exposure to light, particularly bright light, is a known regulator of serotonin in the brain. Specifically, exposure to bright light in the morning can increase the release of it in the brain, leading to a range of physiological and psychological effects.
Exercise
- Exercise is known to have a positive impact on mental health and well-being, in part due to its ability to increase the levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin in the brain. Check our articles on this:
  - Exercise and Mental Health.
  - The Chemical Profile of One Workout.
Diet
- Diet can play an important role in regulating serotonin levels in the brain, as serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan found in certain foods. It’s worth noting that while consuming foods that are high in tryptophan can help to increase serotonin levels, simply eating more of these foods may not necessarily lead to significant improvements in mood or mental health. However, incorporating a balanced diet that includes foods rich in tryptophan can be a useful strategy for supporting overall mental and physical health.

Takeaway

In conclusion, serotonin is a multifunctional neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating many important functions in the body. From regulating mood and sleep to appetite and sexual behavior, this happy chemical is involved in many different aspects of our physical and emotional well-being.

It is important to note that while serotonin is a crucial neurotransmitter, it is not the only factor that contributes to the regulation of these functions. Aside from lifestyle factors like diet, exercise, and stress, other neurotransmitters and hormones also regulate these processes. However, we can better maintain optimal health and well-being by understanding serotonin’s function and role in our body.

***So, remember! Smile and keep reading!***

References

April 23 2022

Oxytocin: 5 Facts You Didn’t Know About The “Love Hormone”

George Nestoros Behavioral Neuroscience, Neuroscience Basics love hormone, neuroscience blog, oxytocin

Introduction

Hello Internet, today’s guest is Oxytocin. Oxytocin is another significant neurotransmitter/hormone which is normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary.

It could be categorized among the main happy chemicals like dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins, even though each one of them has a specific impact on happiness (from boosting pleasure to managing anxiety).

Oxytocin was first known for its role in female reproduction, as long as it is released in large amounts during labor and contributes to lactation.¹ Consequently for many years, researchers saw it primarily as a pregnancy hormone.

However, its role is broader than this. Only over the last decades, researchers have focused on what functions Oxytocin might have in the brain. And the discoveries, huh, are spectacular!

The “love hormone”

As we mention in the title, oxytocin is usually called a “love hormone” (or “love drug”). It appears that humans are experiencing high levels of Oxytocin in the first stages of a romantic attachment. Interestingly, those high levels of Oxytocin persisted for at least (!) six months.²

The above observations in combination with the secretion of Oxytocin during sex and orgasm led to the domination of the term “love hormone”.

However, Oxytocin’s role in love attachments is just the tip of the iceberg. Oxytocin contributes to or has starring roles in many other functions of the human brain as well.

The 5 facts you didn’t Know

Fact #1: The sex hormone

The first fact we are going to investigate is the relation of Oxytocin with sex. It appears that the “love hormone” can contribute to causing erection during sexual arousal, in both men and women. Studies have shown that during sexual arousal the levels of Oxytocin in humans are increased.^3–6

Can oxytocin indeed increase the lust for sex? Interestingly, it seems that the answer is yes. Not only it increases the desire for sex but also Oxytocin is raised during, or immediately after, the orgasm or ejaculation.^4,7

It should be also noted that a study shows that anorgasmic women showed lower oxytocin levels than orgasmic ones before and after sexual intercourse.⁸ And, if you think about it, this is something that, in a way, seals the previously mentioned results!

Fact #2: Social Bonding, Love, and Trust

To understand how oxytocin is related to some complex social behaviors such as bonding, trust, and love, we will mobilize the love life of some (!) voles. Yes, you read correctly.

In the woodlands of Europe and Asia can someone meet one of the only 3% of mammal species that appear to form monogamous relationships, the prairie vole. It will take 24 hours of tremendous effort for them to mate but once they do it, they will spend the rest of their lives together.³ It sounds like a Disney novel, right? And yet, it’s true.

Moving now from Disney’s novel to “American Pie 3”, we meet another vole, the montane vole. Even though those two kinds of vole are 99% genetically alike, the montane vole has exactly the opposite love habits. It has no interest in partnership beyond one–night–stand sex! This major difference is just because of different endocrine functions.

But what actually does happen here? Well, when prairie voles have sex, Oxytocin, and vasopressin are released. Interestingly if the release of those two hormones is blocked, then prairie voles act exactly as their montane cousins!³

Consequently, Oxytocin has a starring role in love, and more generally in every social bonding (from attachment security, mating, paternal behavior, and motherhood). It appears that the key role of Oxytocin is that contributes to building trust between people.

Consider this, research, which contained a money game, showed that people’s trust, even in a stranger, was raised with a nasal spray of Oxytocin. Somebody can even invest more money if he was given intranasal Oxytocin 50 minutes before the decision.⁹

Fact #3: Social Behavior

The recognition of individuals and having the proper response to them is a supreme ability we, humans, take for granted. Imagine a world where life is the same as now and you can have the exact same behaviors with people BUT you can’t recognize any person. You will have all these feelings of admiration, liking, anger, love, etc. but you will not remember to who; or maybe you won’t generate all these feelings at all.

Well, thanks to our complex minds we can recognize a conspecific and figure out the proper reaction to that individual, leading to the formation of a ‘social memory’ of people and displaying of appropriate behaviors within a social group. This is where Oxytocin shows up since it is involved in forming social memory and the ability of social recognition.¹⁰

The social story, though, didn’t come to an end.

What comes after social memory?

A bond; A social bond! (For the few 😁).

As you could imagine, Oxytocin plays a crucial role in the formation of different kinds of affiliative bonds. It appears that oxytocin is greatly implicated in a broad spectrum of bond formation. From parental behavior to friendship bonds to bonds with pups, and, of course, to sexual affiliations.¹⁰

Fact #4: Non-Social Behavior

Believe it or not, Oxytocin contributes to other behaviors except the social ones we have already mentioned. One of these is its role in stress, anxiety, and depression.

Apart from the association of Oxytocin’s imbalances with both anxiety and depression cases, it also seems to have an anxiolytic behavioral profile. Since both physiological and psychological stressors increase Oxytocin release in a few key brain regions which leads to dampening of the release of stress hormones. ¹⁰

And voila, the magnificent catchphrase: “Love Decreases Stress”.

And what is Oxytocin’s role in cognition ability? Well, it seems that the news is not as good as the latter. Although the evidence is not enough to give a confident conclusion; still, research shows that Oxytocin can affect learning and memory.

For instance, the administration of Oxytocin significantly decreases memory, accuracy, and decisiveness. It also shows deficits in learning processes.^10,11

Fact #5: Feeding, Grooming, and (!) Pain Perception

Feeding, grooming, and pain perception. What affiliations might have those with Oxytocin levels? Well, it seems that they have, and they are very interesting. I am getting started with the one that impressed me, and this is pain perception.

Interestingly, it appears that Oxytocin reduces pain perception. What does this mean? It means that when someone is exposed to a painful event, either physical or physiological, Oxytocin plays a significant role in the pain one perceives.^12,13

When Oxytocin levels are high, one will “experience” less pain! Okay, someone might say that the pain is the same; what is, actually, changing is the perception of it.

And here I am for another great catchphrase: “Love Reduces Pain”. How does it sound?

Moving forward to grooming I think that everyone who has read this article will guess that Oxytocin and grooming have a positive correlation. And this is true.

Research on beloved rodents has shown that the administration of Oxytocin enhances grooming activity in both males and females.¹⁴

Finally, feeding seems to be the more complex one of the three. This is because a lot of factors might contribute to this; just so to mention one, remember the dopamine reward system. However, someone can claim that generally, Oxytocin suppresses food intake.¹⁰

Takeaway

What a magnificent molecule Oxytocin is, huh? We just saw that the known “love hormone” plays a significant role in severe sections of our life.

This hormone, when first discovered, was connected only with female reproduction; it evolves into the neurotransmitter that most people recognize for its affiliations with love; and now it appears to be a great facilitator for life. Consider the broad spectrum of its role, from its contribution to sex and social bonding to depression and pain perception. Wow!

Reaching the end, I could say that this article was so lovely. Thanks for reading, stay informed and give love a chance.

References

March 7 2022

Dopamine Reward System: The Motivation Basics You Need to Know

George Nestoros Behavioral Neuroscience, Neuroscience Basics dopamine motivation, dopamine reward system, motivation

The dopamine reward system is the one thing you need to know about to understand why you do the things you do!

Introduction

The dopamine reward system is a complex yet essential part of the human brain that helps us process rewards and develop habits. It plays an important role in our physical health and affects how we think, feel, and behave.

We often only hear about the dangers of unchecked dopamine production, such as addiction or poor decision-making. But it’s much more than that -and understanding how this system works can help you make better choices for yourself and those around you.

In this blog post, we’ll explore the science behind the dopamine reward system so you can have a greater appreciation for why it matters to your health and happiness.

First Things First: “What is Dopamine?”

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, or chemical messenger, responsible for transmitting signals between neurons in the brain. It helps regulate many functions, such as movement, pleasure-seeking behavior, attention, learning, and motivation. When certain pleasurable events occur, or we experience rewards from completing tasks or goals, our brains release dopamine to reinforce these experiences. [1]

The release of dopamine motivates us to repeat the same behaviors associated with the reward we received previously. This is known as reward-based learning, where dopamine reinforces certain behaviors or experiences. In other words, the dopamine release encourages us to repeat those same behaviors in hopes of receiving another reward. [2]

How It All Started

In the 1950s, two psychologists, James Olds, and Peter Milner experimented with the brain of rats. [3] They implanted electrodes in rats’ brains and when the rats were pulling a lever, a mild burst of electrical stimulation was being obtained. They noticed that certain areas, located within the medial forebrain bundle were repeatedly being stimulated and those are the reward areas. [4]

Researchers eventually realized that pleasurable brain stimulation activated dopamine neurons. According to their research, rats were less receptive to brain stimulation that did not entail dopamine activation. (!) [5]

What is the Dopamine Reward System?

The dopamine reward system is a complex network of neurons in the brain that are associated with pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement learning. It is responsible for producing the neurotransmitter dopamine, which serves as a signal to reinforce behavior and motivate us to repeat it in future scenarios. This reward system is essential to our ability to learn from experience and develop habits and behaviors over time. [1]

Scientifically Explained

At its core, the science behind the dopamine reward system centers around understanding how dopamine interacts with certain neurons in the brain, resulting in positive reinforcement for certain behaviors or experiences.

The release of dopamine creates a pleasurable feeling which encourages the repetition of behaviors or stimuli associated with that pleasurable feeling. The term “reward system” indicates rewarding stimuli that drive essential human behavior, including sleep, food, ignorance of pain, sex craving, and much more. [6]

Anything that leads a human being to learn, motivate, and experience pleasure could be a reward. Consequently, the reward system is a group of structures that assist our brain computes the worth of the reward and translating it into actions. [5]

Basically, what happens is that different regions of the brain have neurons that comprise the reward system which communicates using dopamine. So, the structures connected to the reward system are present along dopamine pathways in the brain.

Such different structures in the brain, are the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), and the prefrontal cortex. The VTA is a group of neurons located in the midbrain that produce dopamine and release it into the NAcc. The NAcc is a region of the brain that is associated with reward, motivation, and addiction. The prefrontal cortex is a higher-level area of the brain that is involved in decision-making, impulse control, and regulation of reward-seeking behavior. [7]

For instance, the mesolimbic dopamine pathway connects to the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This is one of the central dopamine-producing areas in the brain. These dopamine-producing neurons in the VTA of the brain communicate with the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens is an area in the ventral striatum that strongly connects with reward and motivation. [7]

In Other Words

The reward system simply helps to motivate us to do things. For instance, if someone offers you $500 to return their missing pet home, you are more likely to do so. Or, if your parents offer you a cell phone as a reward for getting good grades, you’re more likely to achieve higher marks. Similarly, our brains have their own reward system that rewards us by giving us pleasurable feelings.

The brain loves dopamine because it contributes to feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. As a result, we crave dopamine and usually, this is the reason we do the things that we do.

People crave sex, junk food, likes on social media, and new achievements all because of the dopamine reward.

However, as we mentioned in a previous article, dopamine is not only the molecule of pleasure but also the molecule of more. The best way to understand this statement is to do a little experiment. Observe yourself when you eat a bar of chocolate. You like that little piece of chocolate, but this is not the case. You are not just enjoying that little piece of chocolate, but you are, also, feeling that you want more of this! The main feeling you have is not the enjoyment of the chocolate’s taste BUT the feeling that you want MORE chocolate!

To put it differently, we produce a little dopamine with the achievement of a goal, and so we want more.

Consider this: why do people take drugs? Or why do they smoke heavily? It’s because of dopamine release; they find pleasure in doing so. Drugs activate the reward system in our brains which produces dopamine. The urge to get pleasure and reward leads people to take drugs again and again. At the end of the day, a person gets addicted to drugs because once you are addicted to any reward, it’s hard to live without it. [8]

Implications for Human Behavior

Integration of Learned Behaviors

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where rewards or punishments from our environment modify behavior. This type of learning aims to shape and modify behavior through reinforcement or punishment to reach desired outcomes. For example, an animal may be rewarded for completing a task correctly with food (positive reinforcement) while being punished for wrong answers with an electric shock (negative reinforcement). [9]

By reinforcing behaviors and experiences with dopamine, we also strengthen the pathways in our brain associated with those tasks or goals. This strengthens the connections between neurons in our brains, which helps us pay attention to certain things and remember information better. Furthermore, it can help improve our problem-solving skills and decision-making abilities since reward-based learning through the dopamine reward system encourages us to form beneficial and efficient habits for completing certain tasks. [9]

Role in Addiction and Compulsive Behaviors

The dopamine reward system is also involved in addiction. The release of dopamine associated with certain activities can cause people to become dependent on them, leading to addiction or compulsive behaviors.

Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine and methamphetamine, increase dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), leading to a state of hyperstimulation and intense pleasure. This hyperstimulation is so pleasurable that the brain becomes addicted to the drugs and the individual begins to seek out the drugs compulsively, even in the face of negative consequences. Over time, the repeated use of drugs of abuse can result in changes in the dopamine reward system that lead to a decrease in the ability of the system to produce pleasurable feelings in response to natural rewards. This leads to a person becoming addicted by constantly seeking this pleasure repeatedly. [6]

Role in Mental Health and Well-being

Research suggests that individuals with mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety may have an impaired dopamine reward system due to imbalanced neurotransmitters in the brain. This can lead to decreased motivation, difficulty concentrating, difficulty making decisions, lack of interest in pleasurable activities, and other symptoms associated with mental health conditions. [9]

Social Implications of Dopamine Production and Reward System

The dopamine reward system is also linked to a person’s social behavior, such as forming relationships or pursuing socially beneficial goals for their well-being. People may be more likely to engage in activities associated with rewards if it results in positive reinforcement from society. For example, someone may focus on achieving certain career goals because the recognition they receive from peers and colleagues reinforces the behaviors associated with those goals. [2]

Takeaway

Dopamine is a pleasurable neurotransmitter, yet the responses vary from person to person. It is highly associated with the reward system that boosts human motivation and reward behavior. However, it is necessary to keep the reward system balanced. Otherwise, it can lead to psychiatric disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorders. [10]

Therefore, the dopamine reward system works and motivates us to perform well while it is in a balanced state. The dopamine reward system is a key player in the brain’s reward pathway and is responsible for generating feelings of pleasure and satisfaction in response to rewarding stimuli. Usually, it is the main reason that we do the things we do. Dopamine plays a role in mediating the incentive salience of rewards and modulates the motivational worth of pleasurable sensations.

The dopamine reward system also plays a role in learning and memory. When a rewarding stimulus is encountered, the increased dopamine activity strengthens the connections between the neurons that are involved in the behavior, making it more likely that the behavior will be repeated in the future. In addition, the dopamine reward system is involved in forming habits, which are repeated behaviors performed automatically without conscious thought.

But, one of the most important functions of the dopamine reward system is to regulate motivation. Dopamine is involved in the regulation of goal-directed behavior and helps to maintain a drive to engage in behaviors that are associated with rewards. It is now obvious, dopamine release in response to a rewarding stimulus can increase motivation to pursue the reward, and the lack of dopamine release in response to an unrewarding stimulus can decrease motivation to pursue the reward.

To summarize, the dopamine reward system is an essential part of the brain that helps to regulate our emotions and motivations. This system is responsible for the pleasurable feelings we experience when we achieve a goal or receive a reward. By understanding how the dopamine reward system works, we can better understand addiction, anxiety, and depression. We can also learn ways to improve our mental health by using techniques that positively activate this system.

Can we fool our brains and allow us to use the dopamine reward system to our advantage? We will find out soon and share it with you. Until then, stay informed, find out our book recommendations, and take care of your mind!!

Dopamine Nation

But if you want to learn how dopamine rules our life there is no better way than Dr. Anna Lembke’s book.

Find our brief summary of the book HERE.

References

January 29 2022

Effects of Diet on Brain, Breakthrough Evidence

George Nestoros Neuroscience Basics brain food, effects of diet on brain, neuroscience blog

Introduction

Have you ever considered the effects of diet on your brain? And anything that affects the brain can affect the functioning of the human body.

The brain is the hub of all physiological activities and emotional sensations that are performed and experienced by a human. The brain manages this with the aid of various neurological functions and neurotransmitters, special chemical messengers that control and perform brain function.

Different types of neurotransmitters perform different functions. Consequently, anything that changes the levels of chemical messengers can affect you. One such thing that can have an effect is diet.

Effects of Diet on Brain Neurotransmitters

Diet and Serotonin

So, let’s start with a happy chemical, serotonin. Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter and it is involved in mood, behavior, blood clotting, memory, and circadian rhythms.¹ Most importantly, it also plays a significant role in depression and anxiety.²

The precursor of serotonin is the amino acid tryptophan. So, we would expect that eating a protein-rich diet and so increasing our intake of tryptophan would greatly increase serotonin levels, right?

Well, it actually seems that this is not the case. The reason will be explained in a future blog post (stay tuned!), but what actually happens is that serotonin levels increase after a nice meal that is high in carbohydrates.^2,3

Diet and Dopamine

Another happy chemical is dopamine which is both an excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter. It is important for movement coordination, blood flow, pain processing, sleep, stress response, behavior, learning, and memory. Dopamine is best known for being released during pleasurable activities.⁴

The amino acid L-Tyrosine plays a critical role in the production of dopamine. So, increasing the number of amino acids in the diet can also increase dopamine production.⁵ Correspondingly, when these amino acids are removed from the diet, the level of dopamine falls.⁶

Consequently, eating a protein-rich diet can increase dopamine levels. Furthermore, there is some evidences that dopamine signals in the brain is reduced when saturated fats are consumed in high amounts.⁷

However, dopamine release is much more complex than this because of its significant role in the reward pathway.⁸ We discussed this in a previous post: every time we eat that little piece of chocolate that we love so much, our brain is “flooded” by dopamine.

Of course, this is a big and very interesting topic and we will reveal more about it in future posts.

Diet and Acetylcholine

We are moving forward to acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is one excitatory neurotransmitter. In addition to its role in the autonomic nervous system, muscle movement, and in stimulating significant body function, it also play a role in learning and memory. ^9,10

The latter is the reason why nootropics, which are supplements that increase acetylcholine levels, are a topic of so much interest.

Acetylcholine is formed of acetyl coenzyme A and choline with the help of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase.⁹ As a result, eating food that is rich in choline can increase the acetylcholine stores in the body, thus ensuring normal muscle function and improving learning and memory. Such a diet includes beef liver, egg, soybeans, fish, milk, quinoa, kidney beans, and others. The good news here is that choline is not a rare nutrient, and it is easy to incorporate it into your diet..¹¹

However, there are dietary supplements such alpha-GPC and citicoline which can increase choline levels.¹² Moreover, some dietary supplements, such as ginkgo Biloba, seem to slow acetylcholine breakdown and so potentially increase acetylcholine levels.¹³

Diet and GABA

The next neurotransmitter we will examine is GABA. Gamma-aminobutyric acid is a mood regulator. It is inhibitory in action, thus preventing the neurons from becoming overexcited.¹⁴ As a result, low levels of it can cause anxiety, irritability, and restlessness.

GABA itself is an amino acid, meaning protein-rich diets can increase its production by containing high levels of glutamate, its precursor amino acid.

Another way to increase GABA is by taking it directly from food and, specifically, foods like fish, shellfish, beans, lentils, tomatoes, seaweed, and berries.

Even though it is still unclear whether taking supplements increases GABA levels in the body, some food supplements have some effects on behavior.¹⁵

Diet and Epinephrine

Last, but not least, is the neurotransmitter epinephrine, which is also known as adrenaline. Epinephrine functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.

Certainly, epinephrine is a neurotransmitter you don’t want to have at high levels most of the time. It is released under high-stress conditions and increases heart rate and provides energy to muscles.¹⁶

Epinephrine and norepinephrine are important, however, for keeping you focused and motivated. More importantly, it aids the brain in making rapid decisions in times of danger.

It seems that protein-rich diets decrease epinephrine levels. Correspondingly, sticking to a low-protein diet increases epinephrine levels.¹⁷ Moreover, high-calorie diets including lots of fats and carbohydrates increase epinephrine levels.¹⁸

You can experience some increase in epinephrine levels after a cup of coffee which will keep you more focused throughout the day.¹⁹

To Sum Up

So, what did we learn today? Diet and food habits have a strong effect on our brains since the levels of brain regulators are greatly affected by the food we consume.

Consequently, diet can influence our mood, behavior, energy, and much more. The truth is that these things are very complex, but this is just a simple introduction so we can dive into much more detail in the future. Until then, stay informed, find out our book recommendations, and remember – we are what we eat!

References

January 3 2022

What is the role of Neuroscience in our Everyday Life?

George Nestoros Neuroscience Basics neuroscience blog, neuroscience in everyday life

The Role of Neuroscience in Everyday Life

Have you ever thought about how our everyday life affects our brain function? Or how are our activities are related to the chemistry of our brains? What is the role of neuroscience in our lives?

I am sure you have, at least once, heard about dopamine secretion when you eat a piece of chocolate; or about the “love” hormone, oxytocin; or the endorphins that are flooding your brain when you exercise. And the list goes on and on.

The above are all true. Everything we experience in our life affects one or more specific pathways in our neural system. It causes the secretion of a unique cocktail of chemical compounds which affects first our brains in a specific and unique way, and then our bodies.

So, this is the first article of the blog. My goal is to introduce you to the chemical world of our brains. In this context, you will read some basic information about the main chemical compounds of our nervous systems, which will bring us into contact with neurochemistry. Eventually, we will get an idea of the role of neuroscience in our everyday lives!

Let’s Roll!

The nervous system not only controls the physical functions of our body but also the psychological. It even controls the functioning of the organs of the human body.¹ For this, different neurotransmitters regulate the necessary functions, which include:

Concentration and focus
Heart rate and breathing
Sleep cycles and digestion
Mood and appetite
Muscle movement and locomotion (movement from one location to another).

Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that permit neurotransmission, communicating information throughout our brain and body. Therefore, they act as a relay for different messages when they travel between the receptors of different target cells. Different neurotransmitters play either inhibitory or excitatory functions in response to specific stimuli.²

Neurotransmitter levels can be put out of balance in many ways which can cause various unfavorable symptoms. For instance, stress, a “bad” diet, genetic predisposition, both prescription and recreational drugs, alcohol, caffeine intake, and many more factors can push these levels out of optimal range.²

We will discuss all of them and more in future posts. However, for now, we have to meet the main chemical messengers of our neural system.

Dopamine

Dopamine is a significant neurotransmitter for more functions than we can list. Some of these include movement coordination, rewarding experiences, behavior, learning, memory, sleep regulation, attention, and motivation. It is critical for different muscle movements and a deficiency of dopamine can be responsible for Parkinson’s disease, among others disorders.^1,3

You can experience a high amount of dopamine every day during excitatory and pleasurable activities. Your brain produces dopamine when you eat that little piece of chocolate, when you receive a message on Facebook, when your picture on Instagram gets lots of likes, and when you watch those videos online.

However, dopamine is not only a molecule of pleasure but also a “molecule of more”. You don’t just enjoy that little piece of chocolate; you want more! In other words, we produce a little dopamine when we achieve a goal and so we want more.

We produce a little dopamine with a like or a text message on Insta, and so we want more. We produce a little dopamine by watching those videos online, and so, guess what? We want more!!

Whole industries are based on this function of dopamine, which is something we are going to discuss thoroughly in the future.

Epinephrine – Norepinephrine

Epinephrine or adrenaline and norepinephrine have significant functions in the bodily fight or flight response. Whenever a person is in a stressful condition, their body releases epinephrine in response to stress.²

Epinephrine is vital in increasing heart and respiratory rates, while norepinephrine has more of an effect on our blood vessels. When under chronic stress, the body’s epinephrine concentration can exceed exceptional levels. This could lead to heart disease, diabetes, and hypertension.^2,3

Epinephrine also plays a role by giving muscles jolts of energy, while low levels of norepinephrine are associated with decreased focus ability, low energy, and sleep cycle problems.²

You will notice higher levels of those chemical compounds after a warm cup of coffee since several studies have demonstrated the effect of caffeine on the excretion of both urinary epinephrine and norepinephrine have been shown to increase after caffeine administration.⁴

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

GABA is an amino acid neurotransmitter widely distributed in the central nervous system (CNS) which functions as a mood regulator in the body. It is the most important inhibitory transmitter.

For instance, in cases of stressful or exciting conditions, GABA can act as an inhibitory agent to prevent the over-excitation of the neuron cells. In other words, when GABA interacts with the receptors of a neuron, it makes the neuron less likely to fire an action potential or release neurotransmitters.^1–3

Sedatives and tranquilizing medication, such as benzodiazepines, work to treat anxiety in patients according to the principle of the GABA neurotransmitter. These medications increase the concentration of GABA to inhibit restlessness, irritability, and anxiety in the patients.⁵

Serotonin

Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter (5-hydroxytryptamine) that regulates mood, sleep cycle, blood clotting, circadian rhythm, appetite, and more.³

We could call it the molecule of happiness and gratitude. When we feel calm, happy, and “full”, we are probably experiencing high levels of serotonin.

In addition, in times of anxiety and depression, serotonin could play a vital role. Whenever a person goes through intense stress or depression, their levels of serotonin decrease, causing more anxiety and mood swings. Serotonin supplements, such as the widespread SSRI drugs, can help ease the symptoms of depression and anxiety.^1,5,6

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is another significant neurotransmitter of the brain, which plays its role in the:

Regulating memory
Causing muscle contraction
Stimulating significant body function.²

People who have memory issues or Alzheimer’s disease often suffer from low levels of acetylcholine in their brains.⁵ Medications and drugs which slow acetylcholine breakdown can help control vital symptoms of depression and memory loss.^1,3

Takeaway

Our everyday lives significantly affect our brain functioning. What we are experiencing at any moment causes a secretion of a unique chemical mixture. This chemical cocktail not only affects our brain, but also our mood, appetite, and behavior.

Consider how important is to keep your neurotransmitter levels in a healthy balance! In the future, we will discuss what can cause those levels to become imbalanced and how we can optimize them. This was just an introduction to this science and, in the future, we will dive into more detail. Until then stay informed!

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