Behavioral Neuroscience

October 28 2023

Social Hierarchy: The Role of Serotonin in Social Dominance

George Nestoros All blog posts, Behavioral Neuroscience serotonin dominance, serotonin lobster hierarchy, serotonin social hierarchy

Serotonin, dominance, social hierarchy, and lobsters. How could these words be the main keywords of an article? Let’s see!

In the intricate web of human interactions, social hierarchies play a significant role in shaping behaviors and relationships. Indeed, domination hierarchies impact daily life, from boardrooms of multinational corporations to playgrounds of elementary schools.

But what underpins these social hierarchies?

Science has examined the neural mechanisms that govern social dominance, with one neurotransmitter, in particular, standing out: serotonin.

The Essence of Social Hierarchy

Social hierarchy can be understood as an individual’s perceived rank within a social group. It’s not just about physical power or strength; it’s about influence, control, and status.

This perception is often a combination of self-assessment and feedback from the group. Someone could feel dominant because he holds a leadership position in a group, or he might feel subordinate because he is new or less experienced.

Mental States and Guiding Behaviors

The feeling of dominance or subordination is deeply rooted in our psyche. When an individual feels subordinate often experiences feelings of inferiority, passivity, or even resentment.

On the other hand, feeling dominant can lead to a sense of confidence, control, and assertiveness. This individual believes he has the authority to influence decisions and guide group dynamics.

Not only does he believe it but, usually, other people believe it as well. Strange, isn’t it?

As you can see, this perception of dominance or subordination isn’t passive; it actively guides our behaviors. A subordinate individual might be more reserved, seeking approval before taking action while the dominant individual will make decisions on behalf of the group.

But why is this happening?

Why some people are leaders and others are followers?

And more importantly, why the same person could be both a leader and a follower in a short time?

Okay sure this is too complex to be solved in just one article. But, at least, we can see whether serotonin (or other neural mechanisms) can make humans more dominant.

Serotonin: The Chemical of Dominance

Recent advances in neuroimaging and molecular technology have shed light on the neural substrates supporting the perception of social dominance. Broad brain regions, including the amygdala, hippocampus, striatum, and various cortical networks, have been identified as key players in dominance perception.

However, it’s not just about these brain regions; it’s also about the chemicals that facilitate communication between them. This is where neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, come into play.

serotonin happy chemical — *Serotonin: One of The Brain’s Happy Chemicals*

Serotonin, a neurotransmitter widely distributed in the brain, plays a significant role in mood regulation, appetite, sleep, and, importantly, social behavior. Its role in social dominance has been a subject of keen interest for many years.

The research of serotonin dominance

The link between serotonin and dominance has been a focal point in both animal and human studies:

Animal Studies: In non-human primates, like monkeys, dominant individuals often exhibit higher levels of serotonin metabolites in their cerebrospinal fluid. This isn’t just a correlation; experiments have shown that manipulating serotonin levels can directly influence dominance behaviors. As a result, reducing serotonin levels can make a previously dominant monkey more submissive.
Human Implications: In humans, the dynamics are more complex due to the intricacies of our social structures. However, the serotonergic system still plays a pivotal role in shaping social hierarchies. People with naturally higher serotonin levels often exhibit behaviors associated with dominance, such as assertiveness, confidence, and leadership. On the flip side, lower serotonin levels are frequently linked to passive behaviors.

But what do all these mean in terms of social hierarchy?

Role of Serotonin in Social Hierarchy

The brain constantly processes information to help us understand our environment, including our position within social groups. This understanding is not static; it evolves based on new interactions and experiences.

The process of assimilating this information and adjusting our perception of social ranks is termed as “computations” in the context of the research.

The research underscores that serotonin is not just a passive bystander in these computations. Instead, it actively influences how we process social interactions, learn from them, and subsequently determine our position (or the position of others) in a social hierarchy.

To get a better understanding of this we employ the beautiful writing of Jordan Peterson about lobsters (!)

Jordan Peterson’s Theory on Lobster Hierarchy and Serotonin

In his book “12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos,” Jordan Peterson discusses the behavior of lobsters as an analogy for understanding human social hierarchies.

So, within his first chapter, the author explains that lobsters, like many animals, have dominance hierarchies. They compete for the best hiding spots, which provide protection from predators and access to food. The outcome of these competitions determines their rank in the hierarchy.

Dominant lobsters tend to have an upright and expansive posture, with their claws held high and antennae extended. In contrast, subordinate lobsters adopt a more constricted posture, appearing smaller and more defensive.

Peterson highlights that serotonin plays a crucial role in this behavior. Dominant lobsters have higher levels of serotonin, which corresponds to their confident posture and aggressive behavior.

When a lobster wins a fight, its serotonin levels increase, reinforcing its dominant status. Conversely, a lobster that loses a fight experiences a drop in serotonin levels, leading to a more submissive posture and behavior.

Jordan Peterson draws parallels between lobsters and humans, suggesting that, like lobsters, humans also have social hierarchies influenced by serotonin. He posits that individuals with higher serotonin levels tend to be more confident, assertive, and dominant, while those with lower levels might be more passive.

Moreover, the author emphasizes that dominance hierarchies are not a human invention but have deep evolutionary roots. The fact that lobsters, which have been around for hundreds of millions of years, exhibit similar behaviors underscores the ancient and fundamental nature of these hierarchies.

So, drawing from the lobster analogy, Peterson extracts his first rule for life: “STAND UP STRAIGHT WITH YOUR SHOULDERS BACK“.

He suggests that adopting an upright posture can boost confidence, potentially influencing serotonin levels and one’s position in social hierarchies.

Interesting huh?

And this is what we call “bi-directional”.

Serotonin – Dominance: Bi-directional Relationship

One of the fascinating aspects of the serotonin-dominance relationship is its bi-directionality. While serotonin levels can influence dominance behaviors, one’s position in a social hierarchy can also influence serotonin levels. This dynamic interplay suggests that our social environment and our neurochemistry are deeply intertwined.

This is super interesting because it means that we have some control over our social hierarchy.

How? It’s simple, by keeping high serotonin levels.

Yes, keeping high serotonin levels will maintain our dominance in social hierarchy or even enhance it! And the dominance will raise the serotonin levels, which will enhance the dominance even more. It’s a loop!

(This is what is called a Positive Feedback Loop: when the product of a process leads to an increase of the process. More product -> more process -> even more product -> even more process…)

Dominance by Boosting Serotonin

Having said that, it’s now more than useful to provide some ways to boost serotonin naturally:

1. Dietary Choices

Complex Carbohydrates: Foods like whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes can increase serotonin production by aiding the transport of tryptophan to the brain.

No, just eating tryptophan-Rich Foods, will not boost your serotonin! (It will be explained in a future article)

Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Found in fatty fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts, omega-3s have been linked to increased serotonin production.

2. Exposure to Sunlight

Natural sunlight can boost serotonin levels. Generally, spending time outdoors during daylight hours, even on cloudy days, can help.

3. Regular Exercise

Physical activity, especially aerobic exercises like walking, running, cycling, and swimming, can elevate serotonin levels and enhance its activity in the brain.

Check here the article The Chemical Profile of One Workout, for more information.

4. Massage

Some studies suggest that massage therapy can increase serotonin levels while decreasing the stress hormone cortisol.

5. Meditation and Mindfulness

Practices like meditation, deep breathing exercises, and yoga can elevate serotonin levels by reducing stress and promoting relaxation.

meditation benefits science — *The Great Benefits of Meditation Backed by Science*

6. Positive Social Interactions

Engaging in positive social interactions and maintaining strong social bonds can boost serotonin levels. This includes spending time with loved ones, engaging in group activities, or even petting animals.

7. Maintain a Regular Sleep Schedule

Proper sleep can help regulate serotonin levels. It’s essential to maintain a consistent sleep schedule and ensure you’re getting adequate rest.

8. Small wins

Last but not least, get some wins. Humans, like lobsters, experience a boost in serotonin levels after a win. These wins, apart from increasing the serotonin levels, will make you stand straight, and more confident! Again, this will lead to new wins, more serotonin, and why not a better position in your social circle.

Small wins are really powerful and, most importantly, can be scheduled! A small win could be a difficult discussion that you avoid, the morning exercise that you always skip, making some acquaintances at a social event, or just finishing that book lying next to your bed for the last 7 months.

Start looking for small wins in your life and thank me later!

Thanks for reading an article about lobsters, serotonin, dominance, and social hierarchies. 😅

If you are that strange you should follow us on social media!

References

January 29 2023

The Neuroscience Behind Habit Formation. A ‘How To’ Guide!

George Nestoros All blog posts, Behavioral Neuroscience

Habits: the Good, the Bad, and the Sticky

Ever wondered why some habits seem to stick like glue, whether good or bad?

Why do certain habits become deeply ingrained in your daily life, while others fade away?

Do you want to kick-start lasting change and break free from unwanted habits?

Well, you are in the right place. Here the neuroscience behind habit formation will give you the answers!

Neuroscience Behind Habit Formation

Our brains are intricate networks of neural connections, constantly adapting and rewiring through a phenomenon known as brain plasticity. This incredible ability allows us to shape our habits over time by consistently repeating behaviors.

In the beginning, forming a new habit may require conscious effort and intention, like setting a resolution. But as you persist, your brain embraces efficiency, and the once-conscious actions transform into unconscious routines, guiding you effortlessly through daily tasks.

habit meditation — *Change your habits, change your LIFE!*

In this post, we first explore how habits are formed and then the neurological processes behind them. On top of that, we provide practical strategies to help you create lasting habits in various aspects of your life. And why not stop some of them that are toxic?

Neuroscience Basics to Understand Habit Formation

Neural Circuits and Brain Areas

Habit formation is closely linked to specific neural circuits in the brain. The basal ganglia, a group of nuclei located deep in the brain, is a central player in habit formation. The basal ganglia helps encode repetitive behaviors and routines, allowing them to become automatic over time. It’s involved in the transition from goal-directed actions (more conscious and effortful) to habitual actions (more automatic).

Synaptic Plasticity

Habit formation relies on synaptic plasticity, which refers to the ability of synapses (the connections between neurons) to change in strength based on their patterns of activity. Repeated engagement in a specific behavior strengthens the synaptic connections between neurons that are involved in that behavior. This strengthening is a key mechanism underlying the formation and reinforcement of habits.

Dopamine and Reward Pathways

The brain’s reward system, which includes dopamine-producing neurons, plays a critical role in habit formation. When you engage in behavior that leads to a positive outcome or reward (such as a pleasurable feeling or relief from discomfort), dopamine is released. This release of dopamine reinforces the neural connections associated with the cues and routines that led to the reward. Over time, the brain learns to associate the cue with the reward and the routine, making the behavior more habitual.

dopamine reward system — *Dopamine Reward System: The Motivation Basics You Need to Know*

The transition from Goal-Directed to Habitual Behavior

Initially, when you’re learning a new behavior, it’s more goal-directed. The prefrontal cortex, a region involved in decision-making and planning, is heavily engaged in this stage. However, with repetition, as the habit becomes established, the prefrontal cortex’s involvement decreases, and the basal ganglia takes over. This transition from a conscious effort to automaticity is a hallmark of habit formation.

Role of Context and Environmental Cues

Habits are often triggered by specific cues in the environment. These cues can be external (like seeing a particular object) or internal (like feeling a certain emotion). The brain learns to associate these cues with the routine and the reward. This association is stored in neural pathways, making it more likely that the cue will trigger the habitual behavior.

Habit Formation: Explained!

Habit formation typically involves a loop between three key components: the cue (or trigger), the routine (the habitual behavior itself), and the reward (the positive outcome that reinforces the behavior). This loop is often referred to as the “habit loop,” and it’s a concept popularized by Charles Duhigg in his book “The Power of Habit.”

Cue (Trigger): This is the signal that initiates the habit. It can be an external stimulus or an internal feeling. For example, if you’re trying to develop a habit of exercising, the cue might be seeing your workout clothes, feeling stressed, or a specific time of day.
Routine (Behavior): This is the habitual behavior itself that you engage in when the cue occurs. It’s the action you take in response to the trigger. Continuing with the exercise example, the routine would be the physical activity you perform as part of your exercise routine.
Reward: This is the positive outcome that follows the routine and reinforces the habit. It’s the “feel good” experience that your brain associates with the behavior. In the case of exercising, the reward might be the release of endorphins, a sense of accomplishment, or a stress reduction.

But what really happens in the brain during these phases?

During the procedure which involves the habit loop (Cue – Routine – Reward), several things happen in the brain.

Cue (Trigger):
- Brain Regions: The prefrontal cortex and relevant sensory processing areas are activated when the cue is perceived. These regions help recognize the cue and its significance.
- Neural Pathways: The brain forms associations between the cue and the anticipated behavior (routine) that follows. The basal ganglia, a region involved in habit formation, is particularly important for storing these associations.
- Neurotransmitter Involvement: The cue may trigger the release of dopamine in response to the anticipation of the forthcoming reward. This helps reinforce the connection between the cue and the routine.
Routine (Behavior):
- Brain Regions: The prefrontal cortex, which is involved in decision-making and planning, is initially engaged when you consciously decide to perform the routine in response to the cue. Over time, as the habit becomes more ingrained, the involvement of the prefrontal cortex decreases, and the basal ganglia takes over.
- Neural Pathways: Repeated engagement in the routine strengthens the neural connections within the basal ganglia and other relevant areas, making the behavior more automatic.
- Neurotransmitter Involvement: The routine may trigger the release of dopamine, which contributes to the sense of satisfaction associated with the behavior.
Reward:
- Brain Regions: The nucleus accumbens, a key part of the brain’s reward system, is activated when the reward is experienced. This region plays a central role in processing rewarding stimuli and reinforcing behaviors.
- Neural Pathways: The reward reinforces the neural pathways associated with the cue and the routine. This strengthening of synaptic connections makes the habit more likely to be repeated in the future.
- Neurotransmitter Involvement: Dopamine is released during the rewarding experience, providing a sense of pleasure and reinforcing the link between the cue, routine, and the positive outcome.

As a result…

Over time, with repetition, the habit loop becomes more efficient, and the involvement of conscious decision-making (prefrontal cortex) diminishes. The habit becomes automatic, and the anticipation of the reward (dopamine release) in response to the cue drives the behavior (routine). This process explains how habits become deeply ingrained in daily life.

Create New Habits – Break The Old!

Now that we understand the neuroscience behind habit formation, we can apply this knowledge to create new habits and break free from old ones. By leveraging the brain’s remarkable plasticity and the habit loop, you can kick-start lasting changes in your daily routines. Here’s how:

1. Identify Cues:

To create new habits, start by identifying cues that trigger the behavior you want to establish. These cues can be specific times of day, environmental cues, emotional states, or any other signals that prompt you to take action.

For example, if you want to develop a habit of reading daily, you can use cues like setting a specific time for reading or placing a book on your nightstand.

Do you want to eat healthier? Keep some washed green apples next to the sink or on the kitchen table. They will be in front of you every time you go to the kitchen. And they will be already washed, so you grab one without any friction!

2. Define Routines:

Once you’ve identified the cues, define the routines you want to establish in response to those cues. Be clear about the specific actions you’ll take. If your goal is to exercise, outline the type of exercise, duration, and any other details. The routine should be manageable and aligned with your goals.

Also, it is very important to set the when and the where. Define clearly the place, the time, and the exact action you will take.

‘On Monday at 7 p.m, I will run for 20 minutes in the park by my house.‘

Being precise on where, when, and what, increases the chances to engage in the activity.

3. Choose Meaningful Rewards:

Associate meaningful rewards with your new habits. These rewards can be intrinsic (such as a sense of accomplishment) or extrinsic (like treating yourself to something enjoyable).

Rewards reinforce the habit loop, making it more likely that you’ll repeat the behavior in the future. It’s so simple:

Behavior -> Enjoy the reward -> Repeat the behavior to enjoy the reward.

*We are just evolved chimpanzees, my friend!*

So, after a workout, you could treat yourself to a healthy snack or enjoy a relaxing break. This going to associate your effort with a positive feeling that will increase the chances to repeat the behavior.

4. Start Small and Be Consistent:

Begin with small, manageable steps to create a sense of accomplishment and build momentum. Don’t create huge expectations that will disappoint you and drown you down in the process.

Always remember: Consistency is key!

Aim to repeat the routine consistently, even if it’s in a modest form, to reinforce the habit loop. As you progress, you can gradually increase the complexity or duration of the routine.

P.S: As a personal experience, I can share this. I completely changed my body and my athletic ability by starting SMALL. How? I was a lazy weak guy. I started my journey to exercise by going to the gym ~3 times per week. In the beginning, I would never engage in extra difficult exercises or heavy schedules. I would seek to just be a little stronger month to month, season to season. Sure, I learned this the hard way after some disappointments of my time-to-time high expectations. But now I KNOW: Consistency is the key! Consistency made me fall in love with exercise. Consistency made me fall in love with the progress. And eventually, consistency gave me and still does, the results that reinforce again and again my exercise habits. I, currently, enjoy exercising 6 times per week and I am a completely changed man!

5. Replace Old Habits:

To break old habits, you can use a technique known as “habit replacement.” Identify the cues that trigger the unwanted habit and replace the routine with a healthier alternative. For instance, if you’re trying to quit snacking on unhealthy foods, replace the routine of reaching for chips with the routine of grabbing a piece of fruit.

What will eventually happen is that your old bad habit will be replaced by a new one. Instead o a cigarette, you might look for an apple.

6. Mindful Awareness:

Cultivate mindful awareness of your habits and their underlying cues. Recognize the moments when the habit loop is initiated. When you’re aware of the cue, you can make a conscious decision to engage in the desired routine and receive the associated reward.

7. Patience and Persistence:

Changing habits takes time, and setbacks may occur. Be patient with yourself and stay persistent. If you slip up, acknowledge it, learn from it, and recommit to your desired habit. Celebrate your successes, no matter how small, as they reinforce positive associations.

As we already discussed, consistency is the key. And in order to be consistent you need to be patient and persistent. I promise the results will follow!

8. Create a Supportive Environment:

Set up your environment to support your new habits and discourage old ones. Remove temptations that trigger unwanted behaviors and create reminders for your desired routines. Surround yourself with positive influences that align with your goals.

Stop buying cookies! 🙂

As James Clear, the writer of the bible for habit formation, the bestseller book Atomic Habits says: ‘Motivation is Overvalued. Environment Often Matters More.‘

You can find our summary of the book and why to read it HERE!

Change your habits – Change your life

In the intricate dance of our brains, habits are the choreography that shapes our lives. In the end, we are our habits!

Now, Armed with the knowledge, you hold the key to change. You can harness the power of neural plasticity to create new habits that align with your goals and aspirations. You can also break free from the clutches of old habits that no longer serve you.

It’s a journey of self-discovery and self-mastery, and it requires patience, persistence, and mindful awareness. You now understand the magic of small consistent actions, the motivation behind rewards, and the dance between the prefrontal cortex and the basal ganglia. With each deliberate step you take, with each moment of mindful recognition, you’re sculpting the pathways of your brain. You are paving the way for a better, healthier, and more fulfilling life.

Remember, change takes time, and setbacks may occur along the way. So keep on!

Did you find it helpful or interesting? Share it!

Also, go check out some of our articles, they deserve a reading!

Thank you!

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April 23 2022

Oxytocin: 5 Facts You Didn’t Know About The “Love Hormone”

George Nestoros Behavioral Neuroscience, Neuroscience Basics love hormone, neuroscience blog, oxytocin

Introduction

Hello Internet, today’s guest is Oxytocin. Oxytocin is another significant neurotransmitter/hormone which is normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary.

It could be categorized among the main happy chemicals like dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins, even though each one of them has a specific impact on happiness (from boosting pleasure to managing anxiety).

Oxytocin was first known for its role in female reproduction, as long as it is released in large amounts during labor and contributes to lactation.¹ Consequently for many years, researchers saw it primarily as a pregnancy hormone.

However, its role is broader than this. Only over the last decades, researchers have focused on what functions Oxytocin might have in the brain. And the discoveries, huh, are spectacular!

The “love hormone”

As we mention in the title, oxytocin is usually called a “love hormone” (or “love drug”). It appears that humans are experiencing high levels of Oxytocin in the first stages of a romantic attachment. Interestingly, those high levels of Oxytocin persisted for at least (!) six months.²

The above observations in combination with the secretion of Oxytocin during sex and orgasm led to the domination of the term “love hormone”.

However, Oxytocin’s role in love attachments is just the tip of the iceberg. Oxytocin contributes to or has starring roles in many other functions of the human brain as well.

The 5 facts you didn’t Know

Fact #1: The sex hormone

The first fact we are going to investigate is the relation of Oxytocin with sex. It appears that the “love hormone” can contribute to causing erection during sexual arousal, in both men and women. Studies have shown that during sexual arousal the levels of Oxytocin in humans are increased.^3–6

Can oxytocin indeed increase the lust for sex? Interestingly, it seems that the answer is yes. Not only it increases the desire for sex but also Oxytocin is raised during, or immediately after, the orgasm or ejaculation.^4,7

It should be also noted that a study shows that anorgasmic women showed lower oxytocin levels than orgasmic ones before and after sexual intercourse.⁸ And, if you think about it, this is something that, in a way, seals the previously mentioned results!

Fact #2: Social Bonding, Love, and Trust

To understand how oxytocin is related to some complex social behaviors such as bonding, trust, and love, we will mobilize the love life of some (!) voles. Yes, you read correctly.

In the woodlands of Europe and Asia can someone meet one of the only 3% of mammal species that appear to form monogamous relationships, the prairie vole. It will take 24 hours of tremendous effort for them to mate but once they do it, they will spend the rest of their lives together.³ It sounds like a Disney novel, right? And yet, it’s true.

Moving now from Disney’s novel to “American Pie 3”, we meet another vole, the montane vole. Even though those two kinds of vole are 99% genetically alike, the montane vole has exactly the opposite love habits. It has no interest in partnership beyond one–night–stand sex! This major difference is just because of different endocrine functions.

But what actually does happen here? Well, when prairie voles have sex, Oxytocin, and vasopressin are released. Interestingly if the release of those two hormones is blocked, then prairie voles act exactly as their montane cousins!³

Consequently, Oxytocin has a starring role in love, and more generally in every social bonding (from attachment security, mating, paternal behavior, and motherhood). It appears that the key role of Oxytocin is that contributes to building trust between people.

Consider this, research, which contained a money game, showed that people’s trust, even in a stranger, was raised with a nasal spray of Oxytocin. Somebody can even invest more money if he was given intranasal Oxytocin 50 minutes before the decision.⁹

Fact #3: Social Behavior

The recognition of individuals and having the proper response to them is a supreme ability we, humans, take for granted. Imagine a world where life is the same as now and you can have the exact same behaviors with people BUT you can’t recognize any person. You will have all these feelings of admiration, liking, anger, love, etc. but you will not remember to who; or maybe you won’t generate all these feelings at all.

Well, thanks to our complex minds we can recognize a conspecific and figure out the proper reaction to that individual, leading to the formation of a ‘social memory’ of people and displaying of appropriate behaviors within a social group. This is where Oxytocin shows up since it is involved in forming social memory and the ability of social recognition.¹⁰

The social story, though, didn’t come to an end.

What comes after social memory?

A bond; A social bond! (For the few 😁).

As you could imagine, Oxytocin plays a crucial role in the formation of different kinds of affiliative bonds. It appears that oxytocin is greatly implicated in a broad spectrum of bond formation. From parental behavior to friendship bonds to bonds with pups, and, of course, to sexual affiliations.¹⁰

Fact #4: Non-Social Behavior

Believe it or not, Oxytocin contributes to other behaviors except the social ones we have already mentioned. One of these is its role in stress, anxiety, and depression.

Apart from the association of Oxytocin’s imbalances with both anxiety and depression cases, it also seems to have an anxiolytic behavioral profile. Since both physiological and psychological stressors increase Oxytocin release in a few key brain regions which leads to dampening of the release of stress hormones. ¹⁰

And voila, the magnificent catchphrase: “Love Decreases Stress”.

And what is Oxytocin’s role in cognition ability? Well, it seems that the news is not as good as the latter. Although the evidence is not enough to give a confident conclusion; still, research shows that Oxytocin can affect learning and memory.

For instance, the administration of Oxytocin significantly decreases memory, accuracy, and decisiveness. It also shows deficits in learning processes.^10,11

Fact #5: Feeding, Grooming, and (!) Pain Perception

Feeding, grooming, and pain perception. What affiliations might have those with Oxytocin levels? Well, it seems that they have, and they are very interesting. I am getting started with the one that impressed me, and this is pain perception.

Interestingly, it appears that Oxytocin reduces pain perception. What does this mean? It means that when someone is exposed to a painful event, either physical or physiological, Oxytocin plays a significant role in the pain one perceives.^12,13

When Oxytocin levels are high, one will “experience” less pain! Okay, someone might say that the pain is the same; what is, actually, changing is the perception of it.

And here I am for another great catchphrase: “Love Reduces Pain”. How does it sound?

Moving forward to grooming I think that everyone who has read this article will guess that Oxytocin and grooming have a positive correlation. And this is true.

Research on beloved rodents has shown that the administration of Oxytocin enhances grooming activity in both males and females.¹⁴

Finally, feeding seems to be the more complex one of the three. This is because a lot of factors might contribute to this; just so to mention one, remember the dopamine reward system. However, someone can claim that generally, Oxytocin suppresses food intake.¹⁰

Takeaway

What a magnificent molecule Oxytocin is, huh? We just saw that the known “love hormone” plays a significant role in severe sections of our life.

This hormone, when first discovered, was connected only with female reproduction; it evolves into the neurotransmitter that most people recognize for its affiliations with love; and now it appears to be a great facilitator for life. Consider the broad spectrum of its role, from its contribution to sex and social bonding to depression and pain perception. Wow!

Reaching the end, I could say that this article was so lovely. Thanks for reading, stay informed and give love a chance.

References

April 17 2022

The Neuroscience Of A Decision, The Existing Scientific Knowledge

George Nestoros Behavioral Neuroscience decision making, neuroscience blog, neuroscience of decision

Introduction

“What dress shall I wear?”

Every day we make several series of decisions that, one way or the other, shape our lives and our future. From simpler questions like ‟What dress shall I wear?” to more complex matters that may induce the most disparate consequences on our society. The beloved scientists are working to decipher the actions undertaken by our nervous system during this process. So far, though, this problem is not completely understood.

A philosophical or a science question?

One of the main issues is that decision-making often appears as a rather philosophical question that involves free will. Thus, one may cut out the problem from the field of science, believing that determinism cannot agree with such a concept. However, there are neural mechanisms that can at least explain which areas of our brain come into play during perceptual decision-making. That is when we choose one option from a list of possibilities.¹

In fact, the first significant research papers started to appear in the fifties yet this topic has become a central issue in neuroscience only in the last two decades. Thanks to more advanced technologies, it is now possible to observe the brain at work and study the receptors which activate during the decision-making process.^2,3

To comprehend the current state of the art, we shall proceed step by step. Due to evolution, there are animals whose nervous system is less complex than ours. Consequently in such cases, it is easier to predict and study how the brain behaves.

These models represent an approximation of the decision-making process in humans. Yet they give us a very clear idea of the situation: if we represent our possible choices with little walls scattered around, we can imagine our line of thoughts as a floating ball which, never touching the ground, continuously bounces on such walls and hits each of them several times until we choose what to do – then, the ball stops near the corresponding wall.

Neuroscience of Decision

The monkey experiment

Indeed, extraordinary progress has been recently made by some Stanford University researchers. When we are taking a decision, the choices our brain is in front of fluctuating, leading us to hesitation and doubts.³

More precisely, they used a very well-known method called ‘random dot motion discrimination task’. Every monkey was shown one or more dots on a screen. At first, the dots are still, so that the animal can focus on them and scan their position. After a while, the dots start moving, and the monkeys are asked to determine the direction.³

Meanwhile, researchers have developed a system which allowed them to visualize what was going on in the monkey’s brain cells as they decided whether the dots were shifting right or left. This led them to a striking achievement: they were capable of predicting what the animals were going to choose a few seconds before they took their final choice.³

Sound – Smell – Touch

Although this is already exciting, studies have not stopped with monkeys. These animals indeed provide interesting insights. However, it is useful to search for other suitable models to investigate the decision-making process.⁴

One of these is provided by rodents, which allowed researchers to extend the sensory modalities of their experiments, hence giving them the chance to take into account three other senses: sound, touch, and smell.⁴

This yielded a great result: neurons encode choice signals which are heavily influenced by the region of the brain and the sense we are dealing with. For instance, if the anterior lateral motor cortex is not activated in a mouse, then only decisions involving the touch are affected.⁴

Does the past determine our decisions?

At this point, one may wonder whether a similar argument can be carried on in more general cases, and the answer is yes. The decision-making process is influenced by lots of factors, and among them, we can find, apart from our senses, past decisions and the promise of some reward, which by the way are also bridged.⁵

To prove this, scientists have exploited game theory. In this context, the mathematical framework of game theory can be employed to estimate the behavior of animals and humans when they play a zero-sum game (which means that one player’s gain is equivalent to a loss for the opponent).⁵

It turned out, after analyzing monkeys playing free-trial and competitive games against a computer, that the essential information is encoded by neurons in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.⁵

Following this direction, scientists have found out that decision-making is a process that also involves memory and learning.⁶

The ventral striatum, the amygdala, the insula, and the orbitofrontal cortex – areas of the brain which are activated during the learning process – also have a crucial impact on social decisions.⁷

It appears that an individual often tries to figure out how other people are going to behave and subsequently adjusts personal decisions in a way that recalls the result of the theory of mind, expanding the areas of the brain involved in the process as the group of people enlarges.

The present and the future

This discussion on its own gives us an overview of how the decision-making process works, or at least of how it is understood to date. Researchers are currently approaching the problem from several perspectives, and the next few years may bring to light new important discoveries within this field.

In the meantime, we can additionally consider some applications of these studies. The most promising ones include the chance of having a more accurate overview of some mental issues like depression and schizophrenia; in a few cases, moreover, it has been possible to help people with paralysis, foreseeing their movements and, literally, readingtheir intentions thanks to a new real-time decoding technique.³

This opens the doors to a wide range of medical consequences that will probably shape the future treatment of these diseases.

Takeaway

To conclude our discussion about Decision-Making, we could point out that the investigation hasn’t to be only philosophical but scientific as well.

We constantly obsess our minds with everyday questions like “What shall I wear?”, “What shall I have for lunch?” or “What career fits better for me?”. And then we decide; I will wear my jeans with my favorite yellow TH T-shirt and I will eat salmon with rice. (Of course, I didn’t decide yet about the career thing, who did?)

However, behind this process, much more happened. Different regions of our brains are activating; memories and expectations are contributing; and surely, scientists will need more evidence to make more concrete conclusions.

Until then, stay informed and remember “Take care of your mind”.

References

March 7 2022

Dopamine Reward System: The Motivation Basics You Need to Know

George Nestoros Behavioral Neuroscience, Neuroscience Basics dopamine motivation, dopamine reward system, motivation

The dopamine reward system is the one thing you need to know about to understand why you do the things you do!

Introduction

The dopamine reward system is a complex yet essential part of the human brain that helps us process rewards and develop habits. It plays an important role in our physical health and affects how we think, feel, and behave.

We often only hear about the dangers of unchecked dopamine production, such as addiction or poor decision-making. But it’s much more than that -and understanding how this system works can help you make better choices for yourself and those around you.

In this blog post, we’ll explore the science behind the dopamine reward system so you can have a greater appreciation for why it matters to your health and happiness.

First Things First: “What is Dopamine?”

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, or chemical messenger, responsible for transmitting signals between neurons in the brain. It helps regulate many functions, such as movement, pleasure-seeking behavior, attention, learning, and motivation. When certain pleasurable events occur, or we experience rewards from completing tasks or goals, our brains release dopamine to reinforce these experiences. [1]

The release of dopamine motivates us to repeat the same behaviors associated with the reward we received previously. This is known as reward-based learning, where dopamine reinforces certain behaviors or experiences. In other words, the dopamine release encourages us to repeat those same behaviors in hopes of receiving another reward. [2]

How It All Started

In the 1950s, two psychologists, James Olds, and Peter Milner experimented with the brain of rats. [3] They implanted electrodes in rats’ brains and when the rats were pulling a lever, a mild burst of electrical stimulation was being obtained. They noticed that certain areas, located within the medial forebrain bundle were repeatedly being stimulated and those are the reward areas. [4]

Researchers eventually realized that pleasurable brain stimulation activated dopamine neurons. According to their research, rats were less receptive to brain stimulation that did not entail dopamine activation. (!) [5]

What is the Dopamine Reward System?

The dopamine reward system is a complex network of neurons in the brain that are associated with pleasure, motivation, and reinforcement learning. It is responsible for producing the neurotransmitter dopamine, which serves as a signal to reinforce behavior and motivate us to repeat it in future scenarios. This reward system is essential to our ability to learn from experience and develop habits and behaviors over time. [1]

Scientifically Explained

At its core, the science behind the dopamine reward system centers around understanding how dopamine interacts with certain neurons in the brain, resulting in positive reinforcement for certain behaviors or experiences.

The release of dopamine creates a pleasurable feeling which encourages the repetition of behaviors or stimuli associated with that pleasurable feeling. The term “reward system” indicates rewarding stimuli that drive essential human behavior, including sleep, food, ignorance of pain, sex craving, and much more. [6]

Anything that leads a human being to learn, motivate, and experience pleasure could be a reward. Consequently, the reward system is a group of structures that assist our brain computes the worth of the reward and translating it into actions. [5]

Basically, what happens is that different regions of the brain have neurons that comprise the reward system which communicates using dopamine. So, the structures connected to the reward system are present along dopamine pathways in the brain.

Such different structures in the brain, are the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), and the prefrontal cortex. The VTA is a group of neurons located in the midbrain that produce dopamine and release it into the NAcc. The NAcc is a region of the brain that is associated with reward, motivation, and addiction. The prefrontal cortex is a higher-level area of the brain that is involved in decision-making, impulse control, and regulation of reward-seeking behavior. [7]

For instance, the mesolimbic dopamine pathway connects to the ventral tegmental area (VTA). This is one of the central dopamine-producing areas in the brain. These dopamine-producing neurons in the VTA of the brain communicate with the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens is an area in the ventral striatum that strongly connects with reward and motivation. [7]

In Other Words

The reward system simply helps to motivate us to do things. For instance, if someone offers you $500 to return their missing pet home, you are more likely to do so. Or, if your parents offer you a cell phone as a reward for getting good grades, you’re more likely to achieve higher marks. Similarly, our brains have their own reward system that rewards us by giving us pleasurable feelings.

The brain loves dopamine because it contributes to feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. As a result, we crave dopamine and usually, this is the reason we do the things that we do.

People crave sex, junk food, likes on social media, and new achievements all because of the dopamine reward.

However, as we mentioned in a previous article, dopamine is not only the molecule of pleasure but also the molecule of more. The best way to understand this statement is to do a little experiment. Observe yourself when you eat a bar of chocolate. You like that little piece of chocolate, but this is not the case. You are not just enjoying that little piece of chocolate, but you are, also, feeling that you want more of this! The main feeling you have is not the enjoyment of the chocolate’s taste BUT the feeling that you want MORE chocolate!

To put it differently, we produce a little dopamine with the achievement of a goal, and so we want more.

Consider this: why do people take drugs? Or why do they smoke heavily? It’s because of dopamine release; they find pleasure in doing so. Drugs activate the reward system in our brains which produces dopamine. The urge to get pleasure and reward leads people to take drugs again and again. At the end of the day, a person gets addicted to drugs because once you are addicted to any reward, it’s hard to live without it. [8]

Implications for Human Behavior

Integration of Learned Behaviors

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where rewards or punishments from our environment modify behavior. This type of learning aims to shape and modify behavior through reinforcement or punishment to reach desired outcomes. For example, an animal may be rewarded for completing a task correctly with food (positive reinforcement) while being punished for wrong answers with an electric shock (negative reinforcement). [9]

By reinforcing behaviors and experiences with dopamine, we also strengthen the pathways in our brain associated with those tasks or goals. This strengthens the connections between neurons in our brains, which helps us pay attention to certain things and remember information better. Furthermore, it can help improve our problem-solving skills and decision-making abilities since reward-based learning through the dopamine reward system encourages us to form beneficial and efficient habits for completing certain tasks. [9]

Role in Addiction and Compulsive Behaviors

The dopamine reward system is also involved in addiction. The release of dopamine associated with certain activities can cause people to become dependent on them, leading to addiction or compulsive behaviors.

Drugs of abuse, such as cocaine and methamphetamine, increase dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc), leading to a state of hyperstimulation and intense pleasure. This hyperstimulation is so pleasurable that the brain becomes addicted to the drugs and the individual begins to seek out the drugs compulsively, even in the face of negative consequences. Over time, the repeated use of drugs of abuse can result in changes in the dopamine reward system that lead to a decrease in the ability of the system to produce pleasurable feelings in response to natural rewards. This leads to a person becoming addicted by constantly seeking this pleasure repeatedly. [6]

Role in Mental Health and Well-being

Research suggests that individuals with mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety may have an impaired dopamine reward system due to imbalanced neurotransmitters in the brain. This can lead to decreased motivation, difficulty concentrating, difficulty making decisions, lack of interest in pleasurable activities, and other symptoms associated with mental health conditions. [9]

Social Implications of Dopamine Production and Reward System

The dopamine reward system is also linked to a person’s social behavior, such as forming relationships or pursuing socially beneficial goals for their well-being. People may be more likely to engage in activities associated with rewards if it results in positive reinforcement from society. For example, someone may focus on achieving certain career goals because the recognition they receive from peers and colleagues reinforces the behaviors associated with those goals. [2]

Takeaway

Dopamine is a pleasurable neurotransmitter, yet the responses vary from person to person. It is highly associated with the reward system that boosts human motivation and reward behavior. However, it is necessary to keep the reward system balanced. Otherwise, it can lead to psychiatric disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorders. [10]

Therefore, the dopamine reward system works and motivates us to perform well while it is in a balanced state. The dopamine reward system is a key player in the brain’s reward pathway and is responsible for generating feelings of pleasure and satisfaction in response to rewarding stimuli. Usually, it is the main reason that we do the things we do. Dopamine plays a role in mediating the incentive salience of rewards and modulates the motivational worth of pleasurable sensations.

The dopamine reward system also plays a role in learning and memory. When a rewarding stimulus is encountered, the increased dopamine activity strengthens the connections between the neurons that are involved in the behavior, making it more likely that the behavior will be repeated in the future. In addition, the dopamine reward system is involved in forming habits, which are repeated behaviors performed automatically without conscious thought.

But, one of the most important functions of the dopamine reward system is to regulate motivation. Dopamine is involved in the regulation of goal-directed behavior and helps to maintain a drive to engage in behaviors that are associated with rewards. It is now obvious, dopamine release in response to a rewarding stimulus can increase motivation to pursue the reward, and the lack of dopamine release in response to an unrewarding stimulus can decrease motivation to pursue the reward.

To summarize, the dopamine reward system is an essential part of the brain that helps to regulate our emotions and motivations. This system is responsible for the pleasurable feelings we experience when we achieve a goal or receive a reward. By understanding how the dopamine reward system works, we can better understand addiction, anxiety, and depression. We can also learn ways to improve our mental health by using techniques that positively activate this system.

Can we fool our brains and allow us to use the dopamine reward system to our advantage? We will find out soon and share it with you. Until then, stay informed, find out our book recommendations, and take care of your mind!!

Dopamine Nation

But if you want to learn how dopamine rules our life there is no better way than Dr. Anna Lembke’s book.

Find our brief summary of the book HERE.

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